青少年攻击行为的发展及家庭体罚的影响

目的:探讨青少年三种攻击行为的共同发展趋势和性别差异,分析家庭体罚对青少年攻击的影响。方法:使用Bjorkquist等人编制的DIA量表和Strauss等人编制的CTSPC问卷追踪测查294名初中生的攻击行为和家庭体罚,采用多元多层线性模型分析了青少年身体攻击、关系攻击和言语攻击的整体发展状况及相互影响。结果:①青少年身体攻击增长率显著,男生的增长率显著高于女生;②身体攻击增长模型的斜率和截距有显著正相关;③家庭体罚能显著正向影响三种攻击增长模型的截距,但不会影响其斜率。结论:青少年身体攻击呈增长趋势,男生增长更快,家庭体罚可以影响青少年的攻击行为。     

Emerging self-regulation in toddlers born preterm or low birth weight: differential susceptibility to parenting?

The differential susceptibility to parenting model was examined in relation to toddler self-regulation in a prospective longitudinal study of infants born preterm or low birth weight. We followed 153 mother-infant dyads across five time points between the infant's Neonatal Intensive Care Unit stay and 24 months postterm. Assessments of infant temperament, quality of early parenting interactions, contextual variables, and toddler effortful control and behavior problems were conducted. Results supported differential susceptibility and dual risk models in addition to documenting main effects of early parenting on children's emerging self-regulation. Our data suggested that preterm or low birth weight infants who were prone to distress or rated by mothers as more difficult were particularly susceptible to the effects of early negative parenting.     

Context-Specific Associations Between Harsh Parenting and Peer Rejection on Child Conduct Problems at Home and School

Although harsh parenting and peer rejection are independently associated with childhood conduct problems (CP), these patterns are often informant specific, suggesting that their associations across contexts (i.e., home and school) should be considered. In a sample of 142 children with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; ages 5–10; 66% male), we used structural equation modeling to evaluate the structure of multi-informant (parent, teacher) and multimethod (semi-structured interview, questionnaire) rated aggressive, rule-breaking, and oppositional behavior. Next, we explored context-specific associations by modeling harsh parenting and peer rejection as simultaneous and independent predictors of home and school CP. We observed several key findings: (a) the structure of parent- and teacher-reported CP was best accounted by context-specific CP (i.e., home vs. school) and a second-order general CP factor; (b) harsh punishment and peer rejection each independently predicted the second-order general CP factor; and (c) peer rejection was uniquely associated with school CP, whereas harsh punishment was associated only with the second-order general CP factor and did not exhibit specificity with home CP. Whereas harsh parenting and peer rejection were each independently associated with generalized CP, peer rejection showed an additional, unique context-specific association with CP exclusively expressed at school. We discuss potential explanatory mechanisms underlying context-specific associations of CP, as well as address etiological and clinical implications for understanding informant-discrepancies in CP.     

THE INFLUENCE OF NEIGHBORHOOD CHARACTERISTICS AND PARENTING PRACTICES ON ACADEMIC PROBLEMS AND AGGRESSION OUTCOMES AMONG MODERATELY TO HIGHLY AGGRESSIVE CHILDREN

The current study utilized a longitudinal design to examine the effects of neighborhood and parenting on 120 at‐risk children's academic and aggressive outcomes, concurrently and at two later timepoints during the transition to middle school. Random effects regression models were estimated to examine whether neighborhood characteristics and harsh parenting predicted change in these problems from 4^th to 6^th grade. Results indicated that academic problems decreased then increased after the middle school transition, whereas aggression decreased then leveled off. Both neighborhood problems and harsh parenting were associated with academic problems; neighborhood problems and poor support were related to aggression. A significant interaction in predicting aggression was found, indicating that children in more problematic neighborhoods and experiencing harsher parenting exhibited the highest levels of aggression. Findings highlight the relation of neighborhood problems to both academic problems outcomes and aggression in youth and underscore the importance of early prevention efforts.     

Early mother-child separation, parenting, and child well-being in Early Head Start families

Drawing on theories of attachment and family instability, this study examined associations between early mother-child separation and subsequent maternal parenting behaviors and children's outcomes in a sample of 2080 families who participated in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project, the vast majority of whom were poor. Multiple regression models revealed that, controlling for baseline family and maternal characteristics and indicators of family instability, the occurrence of a mother-child separation of a week or longer within the first two years of life was related to higher levels of child negativity (at age three) and aggression (at ages three and five). The effect of separation on child aggression at age five was mediated by aggression at age three, suggesting that the effects of separation on children's aggressive behavior are early and persistent.     

体罚对特殊儿童影响的调查

目的 体罚已经成为特殊儿童康复训练中常见的干预方法,这是一种不良的现象。通过问卷调查探讨体罚对特殊儿童各方面的影响。方法 采用随机抽样法,选择2018年6~10月在我院进行康复训练的150名特殊儿童的家长作为调查对象,以中文修订版体罚态度问卷（ATPP）调查儿童父母对待体罚的态度,以自制调查问卷调查父母对体罚行为的认知及体罚行为实施情况。结果 ①本次共发放问卷150份,回收问卷143份,有效问卷123份,回收率95.33%,有效率82.00%;②有效问卷中父亲作答52份,母亲作答71份,其中父亲体罚态度得分（66.97±16.08）分,母亲体罚态度得分为（54.76±20.95）分;③20.32%的家长了解体罚,64.22%的家长都用过体罚,57.72%的家长认为体罚有用,34.95%的家长认为孩子会模仿体罚行为,26.82%的家长认为体罚会上瘾,29.26%的家长认为体罚会影响亲子关系,84.55%的家长在体罚时夹杂个人情绪。结论 绝大多数父母赞同体罚行为,体罚会使实施体罚者上瘾,同时会影响儿童与家长之间的关系,也会影响儿童身心健康发展。应该呼吁家长慎用或禁用体罚,不断探索新的解决儿童不良行为的方法。     

Covert antisocial behavior, peer deviancy training, parenting processes, and sex differences in the development of antisocial behavior during childhood

Two longitudinal studies were used to examine the occurrence and consequences of peer deviancy training during childhood and the relative role of early covert antisocial behavior in risk for antisocial behavior in early adolescence. Peer deviancy training was apparent in a sample of at-risk first grade children, and it showed persistence and increased prevalence across the school year. Peer deviancy training, peer rejection, and unskilled parenting made additive contributions to the development of antisocial behavior during kindergarten and first grade and to antisocial behavior in fourth grade. Skilled parenting partially mitigated the association of peer deviancy training with antisocial behavior for boys. The appearance and growth of covert antisocial behavior was a predictor of fourth grade antisocial for boys and girls, more so than aggressive and overt antisocial behavior. Peer deviancy training and early covert antisocial behavior were key pathways to girls' antisocial behavior in fourth grade, and they complemented the roles of peer rejection and overt antisocial behavior for boys. The relationships of parenting and peer processes to trajectories of antisocial behavior were similar for boys and girls; but boys showed higher levels of antisocial behavior, were more involved in peer deviancy training, and were more likely to experience peer rejection.     

Declines in peer conflict from preschool through first grade: Influences from early attachment and social information processing

The transition from preschool to early school years is critical for the growth of social skills. Using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (for this study N = 942), the purpose of this study was to evaluate the longitudinal influence of attachment security and social information processing skills (social problem-solving and hostile attribution biases) on normative changes in peer conflict over the transition from preschool to first grade. Using latent growth curve modeling (LGM), this study found that children exhibited progressive declines in peer conflict over this period. Security of attachment (assessed via the Attachment Q-Set at 24 months) was related to lower rates of peer conflict in first grade, and steeper declines in peer conflict from 54 to 84 months. Differences in children's social information processing (assessed at 54 months) were marginally related to steeper declines in peer conflict. These findings suggest that the social skills and social expectations associated with early attachment security, together with subsequent advances in social information processing, are related to changes in peer conflict during the transition to school.     

Attachment security and parenting quality predict children's problem-solving, attributions, and loneliness with peers

The influence of early relational experience on later social understanding has evoked rich theoretical discussion but relatively little empirical inquiry. Enlisting data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development, measures of the security of attachment in infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood, together with measures of parenting quality (maternal sensitivity and depressive symptoms) gathered longitudinally throughout infancy and early childhood, were used to predict differences in children's thoughts and feelings about peers (i.e., social problem solving, negative attributional biases, aggressive solutions to ambiguous social situations, and self-reported loneliness) when children were 54 months and in first grade. Relational experiences, especially before 36 months, were significantly predictive of later peer-related representations. Attachment security at 24 and 36 months was associated with enhanced social problem-solving skills and less loneliness, but security of attachment at 15 months was nonpredictive. Early maternal sensitivity was positively associated with later social problem-solving and negatively with aggressive responses, and early maternal depressive symptoms were positively associated with children's negative attributions. Concurrent parenting quality was also associated with children's thoughts and feelings about peers, but less consistently. These findings shed new light on how early relational experiences may contribute to social information processing with peers at the end of the preschool years, and that the timing of relational influences may be crucial.     

中专学生童年期非接触性体罚经历及其对心理健康的影响

目的：了解中专学生童年期非身体接触性体罚的发生情况，探讨童年期非身体接触体罚经历的影响因素及其对学生心理健康的影响。方法：采用自填式问卷，对某中专2年级484名学生就儿童期非身体接触体罚经历进行不记名调查。结果：总的看来，59．9％的学生16岁前曾经历过至少1次体罚。儿童期体罚的前三个主要来源依次是教师(53．1％)、母亲(16．7％)和父亲(14．5％)。儿童期经历l0次及以上体罚的学生，SCL-90量表中的躯体症状、强迫症状、人际关系敏感、抑郁、焦虑、敌对、偏执、精神病性症状等因子分明显高于没有儿童期体罚经历的学生。结论：本研究提示，在我国儿童期体罚问题常见，儿童期的体罚经历与中专学生心理健康问题明显相关。应重视学校家庭儿童体罚的于预研究，制止对儿童不正当的体罚行为。     

Parenting quality interacts with genetic variation in dopamine receptor D4 to influence temperament in early childhood

We examined the influence of a common allelic variation in the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene and caregiver quality on temperament in early childhood. Children 18-21 months of age were genotyped for the DRD4 48 base pair tandem repeat polymorphism, which has been implicated in the development of attention, sensation seeking, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The children also interacted with their caregiver for 10 min in a laboratory setting, and these videotaped interactions were coded for parenting quality using an observational rating procedure. The presence of the DRD4 7-repeat allele was associated with differences in the influence of parenting on a measure of temperamental sensation seeking constructed from caregiver reports on children's activity level, impulsivity, and high-intensity pleasure. Children with the 7-repeat allele were influenced by parenting quality, with lower quality parenting associated with higher levels of sensation seeking; children without the 7-repeat allele were uninfluenced by parenting quality. Differences between alleles were not related to the child's self-regulation as assessed by the effortful control measure. Previous studies have indicated that the 7-repeat allele is under positive selective pressure, and our results are consistent with the hypothesis that the DRD4 7-repeat allele increased children's sensitivity to environmental factors such as parenting. This study shows that genes influence the relation between parenting and temperament in ways that are important to normal development and psychopathology.     

母亲教养方式与儿童心理理论发展的关系

目的:考查母亲教养方式与儿童心理理论发展的关系。方法:53位儿童和他们的母亲参加了实验。儿童完成4个心理理论任务,母亲填写父母教养方式问卷,他们一起参加亲子互动游戏。亲子互动游戏被拍摄并编码。结果:母亲教养方式问卷的结果表明,母亲的严厉惩罚和儿童心理理论发展之间存在正相关(r=0·39,P<0·01);通过亲子互动游戏观察得到的结果表明,母亲的情感温暖理解和儿童心理理论发展之间存在正相关(r=0·40,P<0·01)。结论:母亲教养方式中的严厉惩罚和情感温暖理解与儿童心理理论的发展密切相关。     

Emotion knowledge in economically disadvantaged children: self-regulatory antecedents and relations to social difficulties and withdrawal

We examined the relations of verbal ability and self-regulation in preschool to emotion knowledge in first grade, and concurrent relations between emotion knowledge and indexes of social functioning in 143 children from low-income families. After controlling for children's verbal ability in preschool, teacher reports of attentional control and caregiver reports of behavioral control in preschool predicted children's emotion expression knowledge and emotion situation knowledge 2 years later. After controlling for verbal ability and attentional and behavioral control, children's emotion knowledge predicted concurrent teacher-reported social problems and social withdrawal. Results suggest that low levels of emotion knowledge co-occur with many important aspects of children's early social adaptation.     

Baseline autonomic nervous system arousal and physical and relational aggression in preschool: The moderating role of effortful control

The current study investigates whether established associations between physical aggression and low autonomic nervous system arousal, as indexed by heart rate and blood pressure, also apply to the study of the development of relational aggression. Baseline heart rate and blood pressure were collected in two samples of preschoolers, and teachers reported on classroom physical and relational aggression. In Study 1, lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure were related to increased engagement in relational aggression among older preschoolers. In Study 2, lower heart rate and blood pressure predicted increased engagement in classroom physical and relational aggression concurrently and across a preschool year in some cases. Low baseline arousal-aggression associations were strongest for children with poorer self-regulation abilities, whereas high self-regulation appeared to protect children with low heart rate and blood pressure from engagement in aggressive classroom behavior. These findings suggest the utility of examining baseline physiological measures in the study of relational aggression as well as physical aggression. Implications for interventions targeted to physical and relational aggression in early childhood are discussed.     

Predicting early adolescent disorder from childhood aggression and peer rejection.

Two large cohorts of Black 3rd-grade children from low-income families were followed into early adolescence. Adjustment at the end of the 1st year of middle school was assessed by teacher and parent ratings and by adolescent self-reports. Childhood peer social status predicted parent-reported externalized and internalized disorder and self-reported internalized disorder. Childhood aggression predicted self-reported externalized and internalized disorder and parent-reported externalized disorder. Teacher ratings of school adjustment were predicted by aggression, rejection, and sex of the child. Consensus judgments of poor adjustment were predicted by both aggression and peer rejection, with sex moderating the effect of peer rejection. Both childhood aggression and peer rejection appear to be significant predictors of adolescent disorder, with each making a predictive contribution uniquely its own.     

Supportive parenting mediates neighborhood socioeconomic disparities in children's antisocial behavior from ages 5 to 12

We report a graded relationship between neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and children's antisocial behavior that (a) can be observed at school entry, (b) widens across childhood, (c) remains after controlling for family-level SES and risk, and (d) is completely mediated by maternal warmth and parental monitoring (defined throughout as supportive parenting). The children were participants in the Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study (N = 2,232), which prospectively tracked the development of children and their neighborhoods across childhood. Direct and independent effects of neighborhood-level SES on children's antisocial behavior were observed as early as age 5, and the gap between children living in deprived versus more affluent neighborhoods widened as children approached adolescence. By age 12, the effect of neighborhood SES on children's antisocial behavior was as large as the effect observed for our most robust predictor of antisocial behavior: sex (Cohen d = 0.51 when comparing children growing up in deprived vs. more affluent neighborhoods in comparison to Cohen d = 0.53 when comparing antisocial behavior among boys vs. girls). However, these relatively large differences in children's levels and rate of change in antisocial behavior across deprived versus more affluent neighborhoods were completely mediated by supportive parenting practices. The implications of our findings for studying and reducing socioeconomic disparities in antisocial behavior among children are discussed.     

Domestic violence and vagal reactivity to peer provocation

This paper examined whether individual differences in children's vagal reactivity to peer provocation were related to domestic violence within the family. It also examined the question of whether conduct-problem children who show vagal augmentation to peer provocation come from families with high levels of domestic violence. During the peer provocation, children were expecting to interact with a difficult peer while vagal reactivity was assessed. Groups were divided into children who showed vagal augmentation and vagal suppression to the stressful peer interaction. Findings indicated that conduct-problem children who showed vagal augmentation to interpersonal challenge came from families with the highest levels of domestic violence. Vagal augmentation was also associated with a greater number of conduct-related problems for those children exposed to high levels of domestic violence. Discussion highlights the role of individual differences in physiological reactivity in understanding children's behavior problems in relation to domestic violence.     

Change and reciprocity in adolescent aggressive and rule-breaking behaviors and parental support and dysfunctional discipline

This study examined how the development of aggressive/rule-breaking behaviors (9-17 years) is related to the development of overreactive and warm parenting, and explored gender differences in development and interrelations. Externalizing was assessed using combined mother/father reports of the Child Behavior Checklist (N = 516). Overreactivity was assessed using self-reports of the Parenting Scale; warmth was measured using self-reports of the Parenting Practices Questionnaire. All constructs were assessed three times across 6 years. The interrelated development of externalizing and parenting was examined by cohort-sequential multigroup latent growth models. Timing of effects was investigated using multigroup cross-lagged models. The results from latent growth models suggest that boys and girls change similarly in the extent to which they show externalizing behaviors, and indicate that mothers and fathers show somewhat different parenting toward boys than girls. No gender differences were found for interrelations between externalizing and parenting. Initial levels of aggression were related to changes in overreactivity and warmth, and vice versa. Changes in externalizing were related to changes in parenting. Cross-lagged models showed that relations between overreactivity and aggression/rule breaking were reciprocal. Together, results from this study show that adolescent externalizing and parenting affect each other in important ways, regardless of the gender of the child or the parent.     

The quality of the mother-child relationship in high-risk dyads: application of the Emotional Availability Scales in an intergenerational, longitudinal study

The present research examined how family psychosocial risk may be associated with emotional availability (EA) across age and time in two longitudinal, intergenerational studies with high-risk, disadvantaged mother-child dyads. Study 1 examined dyads during preschool and middle childhood. Study 2 examined a different sample of dyads, tested intensively at five time points (6, 12, and 18 months; preschool; and school age). Across studies, maternal childhood histories of aggression and social withdrawal predicted negative EA (higher levels of maternal hostility) during mother-child interactions at preschool age. In Study 1, mothers with higher levels of social withdrawal during childhood had preschoolers who were less appropriately responsive to and involving of their mothers during interactions. In Study 2, higher levels of observed appropriate maternal structuring predicted child responsiveness while observed maternal sensitivity (and structuring) predicted observed child involvement. More maternal social support and better home environment combined with lower stress predicted better mother-child relationship quality. Findings contribute to the burgeoning literature on EA by focusing on a high-risk community sample across time and generations. Results are interpreted in light of the developmental psychopathology framework, and have implications for a broader understanding of how EA is related to parental history and personal characteristics, as well as ongoing family and environmental context.     

Gene-environment interaction between peer victimization and child aggression

Although peer victimization places children at serious risk for aggressive behavior, not all victimized children are aggressive. The diathesis-stress hypothesis of disease proposes that an environmental stressor such as peer victimization should to lead to maladjustment mostly in those individuals with preexisting genetic vulnerabilities. Accordingly, this study examined whether the link between peer victimization and child aggression is moderated by children's genetic risk for such behavior. Using a sample of 506 6-year-old twins, peer victimization was assessed through peer nominations and aggressive behavior was assessed through peer and teacher reports. Children's genetic risk for aggression was estimated as a function of their co-twin's aggression and the pair's zygosity. Genetic modeling showed that peer victimization is an environmentally driven variable that is unrelated to children's genetic disposition. Results also provided support for the notion of a gene-environment interaction between peer victimization and child's genetic risk for aggressive behavior, albeit only in girls. For boys, peer victimization was related to aggression regardless of the child's genetic risk for such behavior. Different socialization experiences in girls' compared to boys' peer groups may explain the different pattern of results for girls and boys.