Island medial plantar artery perforator flap for reconstruction of plantar defects

Three cases in which island medial plantar artery perforator flaps were successfully transferred for coverage of the plantar defects are described. This perforator flap is different from the medial plantar flap based on the medial plantar artery. The flap has no fascial component and is nourished only with the perforator of the medial plantar vessel. Therefore, transection of the medial plantar artery is usually unnecessary. This flap can cover defects on the forefoot and heel without transaction of the medial plantar system. The advantages of this flap are no need for deep or long dissection for the medial plantar vessel, no exposure of the plantar sensory nerve, a short time for flap elevation, minimal donor-site morbidity, relatively large flap survival, and no damage of both the posterior tibial and medial plantar neurovascular systems.     

Medial plantar artery perforator flap for soft-tissue reconstruction of the heel

Soft-tissue wounds of the foot and especially the heel are challenging problems for reconstructive surgeons. An important principle that guides heel reconstruction is to provide sensate skin with a similar thickness to resurface the weight-bearing heel and avoid late flap ulceration. Among various techniques to achieve this result, the sensate medial plantar perforator flap is an excellent option, which provides durability to friction, a cushioning effect, and sensation. An anatomic study was performed to clarify the anatomy of the cutaneous perforators of the medial plantar artery and to determine the optimal method of medial plantar artery perforator flap harvest. Fifteen cases of heel reconstruction with the sensate medial plantar perforator flap are presented. The outcome of surgery at a mean follow-up of 12 months is reported. The indications for surgery, operative procedures, advantages and disadvantages, and results are presented. Satisfactory results were obtained with a good color and texture match for heel repair and a good sensory recovery. No functional deficit was found at the donor site.     

Functional Outcomes After Heel Pad Reconstruction: A Review of 7 Cases

Sensate, durable heel pad reconstruction is challenging. The present study assessed the functional outcomes after heel pad reconstruction using various flap techniques at our institution. From June 2011 to June 2016 (5-year period), 7 consecutive patients underwent heel pad reconstruction for various etiologies, with 3 microvascular free flaps (42.9%; 2 musculocutaneous flaps [66.7%] and 1 contralateral medial plantar flap [33.3%]) and 4 local pedicle flaps (57.1%; 3 instep medial plantar artery flaps [75.0%] and 1 distally based reverse sural flap [25.0%]). The patient records and demographic data were reviewed, and surgically related information was obtained and analyzed. The subjective components of the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society hindfoot clinical ratings scale were used to evaluate the pain and functional outcomes. Sensation was assessed using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments, and ulcer recurrence was recorded. The mean age of the patients was 41.7 (range 11 to 70) years, the mean defect size was 59 (range 12 to 270) cm², and the mean follow-up duration was 22 (range 15 to 43) months. Complete flap survival was achieved without significant complications in all 7 patients. Patients treated with the sensate medial plantar artery flap recorded the highest mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society score of 57.3 (maximum score of 60) and experienced a return of deep sensation at 6 (range 6 to 24) months and protective sensation at 1 year. This was followed by the reverse sural flap and the musculocutaneous flap. No recurrent heel ulceration was observed in our series of patients. In conclusion, the sensate medial plantar flap is a satisfactory method for coverage of small- to moderate-size heel defects.     

Use of a reverse-flow plantar marginal septum cutaneous island flap for repair of a forefoot defect.

Soft-tissue reconstruction of the foot frequently requires flap coverage to preserve exposed tissues such as bones, joints, tendons, and weight bearing areas. Recently, reconstruction of skin defects in the heel has been greatly improved by use of the medial plantar sensory flap. However, forefoot coverage remains a challenge, since the alternatives for flap coverage are very limited. A case report is presented of a 52-year-old man with a chronic forefoot ulcer, successfully covered with a plantar marginal septum cutaneous island flap. This recently reported technique, which utilizes a reversed-flow flap based on the superficial branch of the medial division of the medial plantar artery, is relatively easy and disadvantages to the donor site are minimal.     

足底内侧岛状皮瓣联合腹股沟游离皮瓣修复足跟部软组织缺损

目的探讨足底内侧岛状皮瓣联合腹股沟游离皮瓣修复足跟部皮肤软组织缺损的临床效果。方法回顾性分析2015年10月至2020年12月榆林市第二医院烧伤整形手足外科收治的足跟部皮肤软组织缺损患者的临床资料。患者经急诊清创或扩创后,应用足底内侧岛状皮瓣修复足跟部创面,腹股沟游离皮瓣修复足底内侧供区创面,腹股沟供区直接缝合。术后观察皮瓣血运及存活、皮瓣供区愈合情况,并对足跟外形与功能恢复情况进行随访。结果共纳入8例患者,男7例,女1例,年龄20~71岁,平均32.2岁。其中5例为足跟外伤,1例足跟鳞状细胞癌,1例足跟冻伤,1例足跟溃疡。足跟部创面面积4 cm×3 cm~7 cm×6 cm。手术过程顺利,足跟岛状皮瓣及腹股沟皮瓣切取范围较足跟创面扩大0.5~1.0 cm。8例患者术后皮瓣血运良好,创面均一期愈合。术后随访3~12个月,所有患者足跟弹性佳,外形无臃肿,耐磨、耐压,感觉及行走功能满意;足底内侧供区无凹陷,无瘢痕增生及挛缩,无局部皮肤溃疡;腹股沟供区仅见线性瘢痕。结论足底内侧岛状皮瓣联合腹股沟游离皮瓣修复足跟部缺损,足部外观及功能恢复良好,效果满意。     

The Medial Plantar Artery Flap: A Series of Cases over 14 Years

Coverage of the weightbearing heel poses a unique technical challenge to the reconstructive surgeon. In the present study, we share our clinical experience with the use of the medial plantar artery-based flap for coverage of tissue defects around the heel. Eighteen medial plantar artery flaps performed from January 1996 to December 2009 were included. All the procedures were performed by 2 surgeons at Aga Khan University and Hospital (Karachi, Pakistan) and Bahawal Victoria Hospital (Bahawalpur, Pakistan). Of the 18 patients, 16 were male and 2 were female. The indications were traumatic loss of the heel pad in 13, pressure sores in 2, and unstable plantar scars in 3. All the flaps were raised as sensate fasciocutaneous pedicled flaps based on the medial plantar artery. All the flaps healed uneventfully without major complications. The donor site was covered with a split-thickness skin graft, and we had partial graft loss in 1 case. The sensate flaps had slightly inferior protective sensation compared with the normal side. From our results, we suggest that the medial plantar artery flap is a good addition to the existing armamentarium. It provides tissue to the plantar skin with a similar texture and an intact protective sensation. The technique is easier to master compared with free microvascular flaps and has less risk of any functional donor site morbidity.     

不同类型皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的临床效果

目的探讨不同类型皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的临床效果。方法对30例足踝部软组织缺损患者进行皮瓣修复,其中足底内侧皮瓣修复足跟部软组织缺损7例,股前外侧皮瓣修复足背、足内侧软组织缺损12例,腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损11例。结果患者均获得随访,时间1~5年。29例皮瓣完全成活,仅1例股前外侧皮瓣发生坏死,二次手术给予植皮。13例患者因皮瓣臃肿,二期行皮瓣修整术;2例患者因术后长期从事体力劳动足跟部发生溃疡;其余患者皮瓣质地柔软,踝关节功能恢复满意。供区均未出现并发症。足底内侧皮瓣修复患者皮瓣感觉功能完全恢复,股前外侧皮瓣修复患者感觉均部分恢复,5例吻合神经腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣患者于术后3~5个月感觉功能完全恢复,剩余患者感觉功能部分恢复。结论足底内侧皮瓣、股前外侧皮瓣、腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣各有优缺点,应根据足踝部软组织缺损面积、部位的不同选择合适的皮瓣,以提高皮瓣成活率,重建肢体功能。     

足底内侧游离皮瓣、肌皮瓣移植修复足跟缺损

我们采用吻合血管、神经的足底内侧游离皮瓣、肌皮瓣移植修复足跟软组织缺损８例，皮瓣全部成活。４～６周后负重行走，经６～２４个月随访，移植皮瓣无１例出现溃疡，感觉恢复良好，两点分辨觉达２．０～３．０ｃｍ。我们强调了神经吻合的重要性，认为皮瓣的感觉恢复是防止溃疡发生、取得远期良好效果的首要条件。     

足跟部恶性黑色素瘤的切除与修复重建

目的 探讨足跟部恶性黑色素瘤的手术切除和修复重建的原则。方法2001年5月～2003年12月收治8例恶性黑色素瘤，其中男5例，女3例。年龄28～56岁。病变均位于足跟部，病理检查均证实为恶性黑色素瘤；Hreslow分级：Ⅰ级2例，Ⅱ级5例，Ⅲ级1例。手术行局部广泛切除，根据足跟部软组织缺损大小，分别选用足外侧皮瓣、足底内侧皮瓣及腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣移位修复，并于术前、术后应用干扰素治疗。结果术后8例皮瓣全部成活，随访1年6个月～4年，患者均健在，肿瘤未见复发。在功能及感觉恢复方面，足底内侧皮瓣与足外侧皮瓣最佳，腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣恢复良好。结论足跟部恶性黑色素瘤应行局部广泛切除术，在切缘阴性的基础上进行修复重建，根据创面大小分别采用足外侧皮瓣、足底内侧皮瓣及腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣移位修复，临床疗效满意。     

足底内侧皮瓣在足跟部恶性黑色素瘤的应用

目的探讨足跟部恶性黑色素瘤的手术切除和修复重建的方法。方法5例老年足跟部恶性黑色素瘤患者,手术行局部扩大切除,切缘距病损2cm,深度达跟骨骨膜,足跟部软组织缺损Ф5～9cm,根据缺损大小,用带足底内侧血管神经束的皮瓣移位修复,皮瓣面积8cm×6cm-10cm×8cm。结果5例皮瓣全部成活。随访2年6个月～5年,患者均健在,肿瘤未见局部复发,皮瓣感觉功能良好,患足功能与对侧相比无明显差异。结论足跟部恶性黑色素瘤应行局部扩大切除术,切除范围应距肿瘤边缘不小于2cm为宜,在切缘阴性的基础上进行修复重建,应用足底内侧皮瓣移位修复,临床疗效满意。     

足底内侧游离皮瓣、肌皮瓣移植修复足跟缺损

我们采用吻合血管、神经的足底内侧游离皮瓣、肌皮瓣移植修复足跟软组织缺损8例,皮瓣全部成活。4～6周后负重行走,经6～24个月随访,移植皮瓣无1例出现溃疡,感觉恢复良好,两点分辨觉达2.0～3.Ocm。我们强调了神经吻合的重要性,认为皮瓣的感觉恢复是防止溃疡发生、取得远期良好效果的首要条件。     

Reconstruction of Heel Soft Tissue Defects Using Medial Plantar Artery Island Pedicle Flap: Clinical Experience and Outcomes Analysis

We report our clinical experience with 11 cases of heel soft tissue defects treated with a medial plantar artery island pedicle flap. We also evaluated the functional outcomes of reconstruction. We enrolled 11 patients (10 [90.9%] males and 1 [9.1%] female), who received a medial plantar artery island pedicle flap for heel soft tissue defects from August 2010 to July 2014. The cause of the defects included trauma (post-traumatic heel skin necrosis) in 2 (18.2%) patients, infection (calcaneal osteomyelitis with overlying soft tissue infection) in 2 (18.2%) patients, and tumor (stage IA melanoma) in 7 (63.6%) patients. The mean average size of the defect was 3.7 cm × 4.4 cm (range 3.1 cm × 4.0 cm to 4.5  cm × 5.5  cm). The mean follow-up period was 19.6 (range 8 to 35) months, and all flaps survived within that period. The mean static 2-point discrimination was 34.4 (range 29 to 40) mm at the heel and 17.2 mm at the distal sole. The mean visual analog scale score for the aesthetic appearance of the reconstructed heel was 9 (range 8 to 9.5). The average revised Foot Function Index score was 25.8 (range 21 to 37). The medial plantar artery island pedicle flap is a versatile and effective method for reconstructing heel soft tissue defects.     

Refinements of medial plantar flap used for covering nonweightbearing ankle and posterior heel defects requiring thin flaps

We present our clinical experiences with the refinements that we applied to avoid circular flap contraction and achieve thin flap coverage in the reconstruction of posterior heel and tendocalcaneal skin defects with medial plantar flap. Eight male patients, aged 18 to 35 (mean 24 years), with nonweightbearing skin defects, were treated with refined medial plantar flaps. All flaps survived and no circulation problem was encountered. The flaps adapted well to the recipient area, and thin and well-contoured skin coverage was achieved by postoperative month 6. As a conclusion, it is possible to reconstruct the nonweightbearing defects needing thin flap by medial plantar flap with adding refinements: (1) adding triangles around the flap, (2) harvesting a thin flap by excluding the thick plantar fascia, (3) harvesting a further thin flap by defatting of the flap, (4) application of pressure to the flap.     

Reconstruction of Lateral Forefoot Using Reversed Medial Plantar Flap with Free Anterolateral Thigh Flap

Skin defects of the heel have frequently been reconstructed using the medial plantar flap; however, forefoot coverage has remained a challenge, because the alternatives for flap coverage have been very limited. We describe a case of malignant melanoma on the lateral forefoot that was radically removed and reconstructed successfully with a distally based medial plantar flap, together with a free anterolateral thigh flap. The advantages of this flap include that it does not reduce the vascular supply to the foot owing to reconstruction of the medial plantar vascular systems, reduces the risk of flap congestion, minimizes donor site morbidity, and enables the transport of structurally similar tissues to the plantar forefoot. We believe this technique is a reasonable reconstructive option for large lateral plantar forefoot defects.     

Various applications of the medial plantar flap to cover the defects of the plantar foot,posterior heel,and ankle

The medial plantar fasciocutaneous flap provides structurally similar tissue to plantar foot, posterior heel, and ankle defects with its thick glabrous plantar skin, shock-absorbing fibrofatty subcutaneous tissue, and plantar fascia. During the past 4 years, 24 patients (20 men, 4 women) with skin and soft-tissue defects over the plantar foot, posterior heel, or ankle were treated. They ranged in age from 20 to 42 years (mean, 24 y). The medial plantar flap was transposed to the defects in four different ways: proximally pedicled sensorial island flaps (N = 18), reverse-flow island flaps (N = 2), free flaps (N = 2), and cross-foot flaps (N = 2). Flap size varied from a width of 2 to 5.5 cm and a length of 5 to 7.5 cm. The follow-up period ranged from 2 to 18 months (mean, 9 mo). Partial flap loss was observed in one free flap and one reverse-flow island flap. Partial skin graft lost in the donor site required regrafting in one patient. Durable, sensate coverage of the defects was achieved in all patients.     

跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复多手指末节骨与软组织缺损

目的 总结跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复多手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损的临床应用结果. 方法 2004年2月至2006年7月,应用吻合血管的跖内侧皮瓣联合肋骨移植修复5例(男4例,女1例)手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损,年龄19～43岁(平均31岁).其中,双指损伤3例,3指损伤2例.皮瓣血管蒂与受区的血管行端端吻合,供区创面行中厚网状游离植皮修复. 结果 1例术后供区发生表浅感染,经更换敷料逐渐自行愈合.皮瓣全部成活,随访10～28个月(平均19个月),供区与受区外形较好,手指感觉恢复.两点分辨觉5～14 mm(平均8 mm).结论 跖内侧皮瓣以跖内侧动脉为血供,血运丰富、血管解剖恒定、血管蒂长以及切取容易,联合肋骨移植很适宜修复多手指末节掌侧骨与软组织缺损.     

Foot and ankle reconstruction: An experience on the use of 14 different flaps in 226 cases

The aim of this report was to present our experience on the use of different flaps for soft tissue reconstruction of the foot and ankle. From 2007 to 2012, the soft tissue defects of traumatic injuries of the foot and ankle were reconstructed using 14 different flaps in 226 cases (162 male and 64 female). There were 62 pedicled flaps and 164 free flaps used in reconstruction. The pedicled flaps included sural flap, saphenous flap, dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap, pedicled peroneal artery perforator flap, pedicled tibial artery perforator flap, and medial plantar flap. The free flaps were latissimus musculocutaneous flap, anterolateral thigh musculocutaneous flap, groin flap, lateral arm flap, anterolateral thigh perforator flap, peroneal artery perforator flap, thoracdorsal artery perforator flap, medial arm perforator flap. The sensory nerve coaptation was not performed for all of flaps. One hundred and ninety‐four cases were combined with open fractures. One hundred and sixty‐two cases had tendon. Among 164 free flaps, 8 flaps were completely lost, in which the defects were managed by the secondary procedures. Among the 57 flaps for plantar foot coverage (25 pedicled flaps and 32 free flaps), ulcers were developed in 5 pedicled flaps and 6 free flaps after weight bearing, and infection was found in 14 flaps. The donor site complications were seen in 3 cases with the free anterolateral thigh perforator flap transfer. All of limbs were preserved and the patients regained walking and daily activities. All of patients except for one regained protective sensation from 3 to 12 months postoperatively. Our experience showed that the sural flap and saphenous flap could be good options for the coverage of the defects at malleolus, dorsal hindfoot and midfoot. Plantar foot, forefoot and large size defects could be reconstructed with free anterolateral thigh perforator flap. For the infected wounds with dead spce, the free latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap remained to be the optimal choice. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 33:600–604, 2013.     

Anatomic study of a new axial skin flap based on the cutaneous branch of the medial plantar artery

A new axial skin flap based on the middle cutaneous branch of the medial plantar artery was evaluated in 33 fresh cadaver legs. The vascular pedicle of the skin flap is based on the middle cutaneous artery, its venae comitantes, and segments of the great saphenous vein, if necessary. The middle cutaneous artery is the largest cutaneous branch, arising from the medial plantar artery 2.5 cm distal to its origin. The diameter of its origin is 1.2 mm, and its pedicle is 2 cm long. The midline of the flap runs from the first web space to the heel tip. The upper and lower borders of the flap are 3 to 4 cm on either side of this line. The upper border is medial to the extensor hallucis tendon, and the lower border is medial to the abductor hallucis. Distally, the border begins 2 cm proximal to the metatarsalphalangeal joint; proximally, the border is at the middle of the medial malleolus. The flap diameter can be up to 8 × 12 cm. The middle cutaneous branch of the medial plantar artery was found in all cadaver specimens, except for one with a common trunk. The new flap design leaves the major blood supply to the foot and the plantar aponeurosis intact. It is easy to harvest and may be used either as an island flap or free flap. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The rotational advancement of medial plantar flap for coverage of foot defect: a case report

This case describes the use of the medial plantar artery flap used to cover a lateral foot wound in a 19-year-old male with a history of spina bifida. The original operative plan was for coverage with a medial plantar flap based distally on retrograde flow through the lateral plantar artery; however, this had to be revised intraoperatively as his vascular anatomy was not adequate to support a flap of this type. Thus, advancement with rotation modification of the conventional medial plantar flap was performed with good results. At 2-month follow-up, the patient's flap had fully healed, he returned to full weight-bearing status, and he had gross sensation in the sole of his foot. This case illustrates the use of the well-described medial plantar flap by rotating and advancing the flap for reconstruction of defects of the foot.