Dynamic patterns of apoptosis in the developing chicken heart.

The outflow tract (OFT) is abnormal in many congenital heart defects. One critical mechanism for morphogenesis of this complex structure is apoptosis. Chicken embryos (stages 19-38; ED4-10) stained with a fluorescent supravital lysosomal dye (LysoTracker Red; LTR) revealed the three-dimensional relationship between structural changes and apoptosis. The LTR staining peaked in the OFT myocardium at stages 27-32, consistent with our previous analyses using other apoptosis assays. While LTR stained under both the pulmonary artery and the aorta, it was most prevalent in the subaortic myocardium before its elimination. Furthermore, LTR staining was most abundant in the myocardium under intensely cytokeratin-positive, thick epicardium. These data support the hypothesis that temporally and spatially restricted apoptosis in the OFT myocardium allows the aorta and pulmonary artery to dock at the appropriate angle and level with the proper ventricle. These data also support a relationship between the differentiating epicardium and cardiomyocyte apoptosis.     

Initiation of apoptosis in the developing avian outflow tract myocardium.

Apoptosis occurs within the cardiac outflow tract (OFT) myocardium during normal development of chick hearts. This peak of apoptosis occurs at stage 30-31 and coincides with dramatic remodeling of the OFT, suggesting that apoptosis occurs to allow proper alignment of the great vessels over their respective ventricles. The signals that initiate apoptosis in this setting are unknown. The aim of this study was to characterize the cells undergoing apoptosis in the cardiac OFT myocardium and the cells that may influence this process. Two cell populations that may initiate apoptosis of the cardiomyocytes are the cardiac neural crest (CNC) cells and epicardial cells. We examined stage 30-31 chick embryos that had undergone removal of the CNC cells or had delayed epicardial growth for alterations of apoptosis. Removal of the CNC cells did not reduce the levels or pattern of apoptosis in the OFT myocardium. In contrast, impeding the growth of the epicardium over the OFT resulted in a 57% reduction in apoptotic cells in the OFT myocardium. Analysis of the apoptotic cells within the OFT myocardium showed that as many as 92% of them expressed cardiomyocyte markers. In the quail, the endothelial marker QH1 identified a component from the epicardium, endothelial cells, in regions where apoptosis is elevated in the OFT myocardium. These results suggest that a component from the epicardium, possibly endothelial cells, is required for the initiation of apoptosis in OFT cardiomyocytes.     

骨形态发生蛋白-2在小鼠胚胎心流出道发育中的作用

目的 探讨骨形态发生蛋白-2(BMP-2)在小鼠胚胎心流出道发育过程中的作用。 方法 对胚龄9d(E9) ～E15（各胚龄取3～7只）小鼠心连续石蜡切片,用抗α-横纹肌肌动蛋白(α-SCA)抗体、抗胰岛素增强子结合蛋白(ISL-1)抗体、抗增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)抗体、抗BMP-2抗体进行免疫组织化学染色。结果 E9,流出道心胶质内无细胞,心肌增殖活性低,BMP-2弱表达于流出道心肌、心内膜及心包腔背侧壁。E9～11,流出道增长,心包腔背侧壁ISL-1阳性细胞至流出道远端分化为心肌细胞后增殖逐渐减弱。E10～11,流出道嵴内间充质细胞逐渐增加,可见BMP-2、PCNA阳性细胞;流出道BMP-2表达逐渐增强达高峰,向两端延伸逐渐减弱,动脉端可及心包反折处。E12,流出道缩短,BMP-2表达减弱。E13～15,流出道隔逐渐肌化,BMP-2在心脏近大血管部心肌呈较弱表达。E10～13,流出道远段心肌呈低增殖活性,近段及右心室心肌增殖成小梁致右心室形成及扩大。结论 BMP-2诱导第二生心区(SHF)细胞分化为心肌细胞添加至心动脉端,参与心流出道嵴的发育。BMP-2抑制流出道心肌增殖,流出道近段BMP 2表达减弱重启了心肌细胞增殖,致右心室形成及流出道缩短。低水平的BMP 2可能诱导流出道隔间充质细胞向心肌分化。     

Bmp2 regulates the interaction between EPDCs and myocytes in cardiac OFT

Epicardium-derived cells (EPDCs) can migrate into the myocardium, giving rise to several types of cell which are indispensable to compact myocardium and inducing normal myocardial development. Subepicardium accumulates bone morphogenetic proteins (Bmps), which can release into myocardium further. It has been shown that reduced Bmp-mediated signaling in a novel neural crest derivative in the epicardium reduced the cardiomyocyte proliferative activity in the developing myocardium. Furthermore, studies have demonstrated that cardiomyocytes can develop in proepicardial organ (PEO) explant cultures after stimulation with bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp2). We present a hypothesis that Bmp2 regulates the interaction between EPDCs and cardiomyocyte in the developing outflow tract (OFT). Our previous empirical data also shows that Bmp2 is expressed in the myocardial cell in the OFT at embryonic day (E) 14.5 in wild-type mice, and expression of Bmp2 in Cx43α1 knockout (KO) OFT was delayed for 1day. Further validation of this hypothesis will provide additional insight of the molecular mechanism of myocardium maturation.     

胰岛素增强子结合蛋白1在小鼠胚胎心的时空分布

目的 观察转录因子胰岛素增强子结合蛋白1（ISL1）在小鼠胚胎心的表达与心、第二生心区及前肠内胚层的发育。 方法 胚龄8～13d小鼠胚胎心共18个,连续石蜡切片,用抗心肌肌球蛋白重链（MHC）、抗ISL1、抗增殖细胞核抗原（PCNA）和抗α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)抗体进行免疫组织化学染色、免疫荧光染色和Western blotting检测。 结果 胚龄9d,ISL1阳性心前体细胞进入流出道远端。胚龄10d,ISL1阳性细胞延伸入流出道近端及静脉窦心肌。胚龄11～12d,心内ISL1表达量逐渐增多并达高峰,动脉端ISL1阳性细胞分布于流出道远端壁、心包内主肺动脉壁及主肺动脉隔,静脉端ISL1阳性细胞主要限于窦房结和静脉瓣。动脉端前肠内胚层细胞索增至最长,周围前生心区ISL1阳性细胞密度也达高峰,并且明显多于后生心区。胚龄13d,心内及第二生心区ISL1阳性细胞显著减少,内胚层细胞索趋于消失。 结论 ISL1阳性细胞在小鼠胚胎心的表达主要集中在胚龄9～13d,其表达模式与第二生心区及前肠内胚层的发育密切相关。     

转化生长因子β受体在小鼠胚胎心流出道的表达

目的 探讨转化生长因子受体TGF-βRⅠ、TGF-βRⅡ在小鼠胚胎心流出道的时空表达规律以及与流出道发育的关系。 方法 9～14d小鼠胚胎连续切片,免疫组织化学PAP法染色。 结果 TGF-βRⅠ和TGF-βRⅡ在流出道心肌的表达开始于胚胎发育10d,11d延伸至流出道和心包腔背侧壁脏壁中胚层上皮的反折处,12d达高峰,同时于流出道心内膜垫可见TGF-βRⅡ阳性间充质细胞,13d后,两者表达均迅速减弱,14d表达降至最低。 结论 TGF-βRⅠ和TGF-βRⅡ在流出道表达集中于胚胎发育10～14d,TGF-βs信号系统可能参与调节心肌细胞的增殖、流出道的外形重建和内部分隔,并促进第二生心区间充质细胞分化为流出道远端平滑肌细胞。     

Differential levels of tissue hypoxia in the developing chicken heart.

Tissue hypoxia plays a critical role in normal development, including cardiogenesis. Previously, we showed that oxygen concentration, as assessed by the hypoxia indicator EF5, is lowest in the outflow tract (OFT) myocardium of the developing chicken heart and may be regulating events in OFT morphogenesis. In this study, we identified additional areas of the embryonic chicken heart that were intensely positive for EF5 within the myocardium in discrete regions of the atrial wall and the interventricular septum (IVS). The region of the IVS that is EF5-positive includes a portion of the developing central conduction system identified by HNK-1 co-immunostaining. The EF5 positive tissues were also specifically positive for nuclear-localized hypoxia inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1alpha), the oxygen-sensitive component of the hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF-1) heterodimer. The pattern of the most intensely EF5-stained myocardial regions of the atria and IVS resemble the pattern of the major coronary vessels that form in later stages within or immediately adjacent to these particular regions. These vessels include the sinoatrial nodal artery that is a branch of the right coronary artery within the atrial wall and the anterior/posterior interventricular vessels of the IVS. These findings indicate that a portion of the developing central conduction system and the patterning of coronary vessels may be subject to a level of regulation that is dependent on differential oxygen concentration within cardiac tissues and subsequent HIF-1 regulation of gene expression.     

小鼠胚胎心流出道近段心室化形成右心室小梁部

目的探讨小鼠胚胎心流出道快速缩短及右心室形成机制。方法用抗α-横纹肌肌动蛋白(SCA)、抗肌球蛋白重链(MHC)抗体标记心肌,抗GATA-4抗体标记心肌及其前体细胞,抗α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(SMA)抗体标记早期心肌细胞,抗增殖细胞核抗原(PCNA)抗体显示增殖细胞,抗人/鼠活性Caspase-3(CAS-3)抗体检测凋亡早期细胞,对胚龄9d(E9)~E12(不同胚龄胚胎各取3~5只)小鼠胚胎心连续切片行免疫组织化学染色。结果E11时动脉囊及流出道远端心肌界退却至心包腔内,GATA-4、SCA、SMA染色示第二生心区前体细胞不断分化为心肌细胞添加在心动脉端使流出道延长。小鼠胚胎心流出道于E12缩短,缩短前及缩短过程中全长未检测到CAS-3阳性细胞。E10~12时右心室及流出道近段心肌不断增生形成小梁并侵入邻近的流出道嵴内,流出道近端嵴逐渐小梁状心肌化改建为右心室壁;E12时近段间充质性流出道嵴内出现散在的SCA、SMA阳性心肌细胞及与流出道心肌相延续的SCA、SMA弱阳性心肌细胞流,这些结果表明近段流出道心肌小梁化、流出道嵴小梁状肌化形成了右心室小梁部。结论小鼠胚胎流出道近段心室化致右心室小梁部形成及流出道快速缩短,心肌细胞凋亡及转分化对流出道快速缩短的作用甚微。     

Programmed cell death in the developing heart: regulation by BMP4 and FGF2.

Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, plays an important role in embryonic development. To provide new insights into the role of programmed cell death in cardiac development, we examined the hearts of the murine embryos from E9.5 to postnatal day 3. Using terminal transferase-mediated dUTP nick end-labeling assays, apoptosis was detected in the endocardial cushions and myocardium from E11.5 to postnatal day 3 (P3). In the ventricular myocardium, more apoptotic cells were observed in the left than right ventricles throughout embryonic and early postnatal development. Apoptosis was also present in the trabeculae and papillary muscles of the ventricles. In the outflow tract, cell death was present in the endocardial cushions before they fuse to form the conotruncal septum (E11.5-E12. 5) and reached a peak intensity when the conotruncal septum formed (E13.5). In the atrioventricular (AV) endocardial cushions, cell death was detected in the fusion seam of the cushion tissues at E12. 5 and E13.5 during AV septation. When the patterns of apoptosis were compared with patterns of cell division, we found that programmed cell death occurred in the areas in the endocardial cushions and trabeculae where rates of cell proliferation were low. We also found that programmed cell death was regulated by the growth factors, BMP4 and FGF2, in vitro. BMP4 induced, whereas FGF2 inhibited, apoptosis in both endocardial cushions and ventricular myocardium. Overall, our observations show that there is apoptosis in the regions where fusion or remodeling of tissues occurs. We also show that cardiac programmed cell death can be influenced by growth factors.     

Developmental pattern of ANF gene expression reveals a strict localization of cardiac chamber formation in chicken.

In mouse, atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) gene expression was shown to be a marker for chamber formation within the embryonic heart. To gain insight into the process of chamber formation in the chicken embryonic heart, we analyzed the expression pattern of cANF during development. We found cANF to be specifically expressed in the myocardium of the morphologically distinguishable atrial and ventricular chambers, similar to ANF in mouse. cANF expression was never detected in the myocardium of the atrioventricular canal (AVC), inner curvature, and outflow tract (OFT), which is lined by endocardial cushions. Expression was strictly excluded from the interventricular myocardium and most proximal part of the bundle branches, as identified by the expression of Msx-2, whereas the rest of the bundle branches, trabeculae, and surrounding working myocardium did express cANF. The myocardium that forms de novo within the cushions after looping did not express cANF. At HH9 cANF expression was first observed in a subset of cardiomyocytes, which was localized ventrally in the fused heart tube and laterally in the unfused cardiac sheets. Together, these results show that cANF expression can be used to distinguish differentiated chamber (working) myocardium, including the peripheral ventricular conduction system, from embryonic myocardium. We conclude that differentiation of chamber myocardium takes place already at HH9 at the ventral side of the linear heart tube, possibly preceded by latero-medial signals in the unfused cardiac sheets.     

Control of endocardial cushion and cardiac valve maturation by BMP signaling pathways

Congenital heart defects, the leading cause of deaths from birth defects, are estimated to occur in close to 1% of live newborns. Among these, abnormal septation of the heart and valve anomalies are the most frequent forms. Despite progress defining several genes involved in normal heart development, we still have a limited understanding of the signaling pathways involved in morphogenesis of the outflow tract (OFT) and, to date, very few genes have been identified that are responsible for defects in humans. Bone Morphogenetic Protein (BMP) signaling pathways are emerging as vital regulators of multiple aspects of cardiogenesis, including the septation of the OFT and valve maturation. Genetic and other in vivo evidence is now supporting the role for BMPs as inducers of endocardial cushion epithelial-to-mesenchymal transformation that was suggested by in vitro explant studies as well as by their patterns of expression in the developing heart. Here, we review briefly the in vitro data, and detail the novel mouse models where perturbed BMP signaling pathways result in impaired OFT septation and semilunar valvulogenesis. We propose that growth of the OFT valve cushions is regulated by the level of BMP signaling, under the control of other signaling pathways.     

β8 integrin and band 4.1B cooperatively regulate morphogenesis of the embryonic heart

Morphogenesis of the heart is regulated by various cues, including growth factors and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. The mechanisms by which cardiac cells properly integrate these cues to regulate growth, differentiation, and migration remain poorly understood. Here we have used genetic strategies in mice to identify αvβ8 integrin and its cytoskeletal adaptor protein, Band 4.1B, as essential regulators of cardiac morphogenesis. We demonstrate that approximately 60% of mouse embryos genetically null for β8 integrin and Band 4.1B display cardiovascular phenotypes and die by E11.5. This premature death is due, in part, to defective development of the cardiac outflow tract (OFT), with reduced expression of smooth muscle α‐actin (SMAα‐actin) in OFT cells derived from the cardiac neural crest. These data are the first to identify cell adhesion and signaling pathways regulated by αvβ8 integrin and Band 4.1B as essential for normal formation and function of the heart during embryogenesis. Developmental Dynamics, 2011. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

神经嵴细胞和胰岛因子1阳性细胞与小鼠胚胎心流出道发育的关系

目的 探讨迁移中的细胞视黄酸结合蛋白1(CRABP1)阳性神经嵴细胞、胰岛因子1(ISL-1)、阳性心肌前体细胞与小鼠胚胎心流出道发育的关系.方法 36只胚龄8.5～13d小鼠胚胎心连续石蜡切片,选用抗α-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)、抗心肌肌球蛋白重链(MHC)、抗转录因子ISL-1、抗CRABP1和抗磷酸化组蛋白H3(PHH3)抗体,进行免疫组织化学及免疫荧光染色.结果 胚龄8.5～10d,ISL-1阳性心肌前体细胞相继出现在心背系膜、原始咽两侧、头面部、鳃弓核心间充质和心包腔背侧壁间充质,构成心管流出道发育的第二生心区.胚龄11～13d,ISL-1阳性细胞在咽前方聚集,形成特征性锥体形结构,并向升主动脉、肺动脉干及主肺动脉隔延伸.胚龄9d前,神经嵴细胞散在分布于ISL-1阳性细胞之间,流出道远侧端可见少量CRABP1和ISL-1双阳性细胞.胚龄10d,CRABP1阳性神经嵴细胞分布在ISL-1阳性鳃弓核心间充质周围.随着发育,弓动脉等处的神经嵴细胞逐渐失去CRABP1表达,开始表达α-SMA.结论 ISL-1阳性第二生心区是动态结构,胚龄8.5～10d时,在神经嵴细胞配合下,向心管动脉端添加心肌细胞;胚龄11d后,开始向平滑肌方向分化,参与升主动脉、肺动脉干和主肺动脉隔的发育.     

Morphogenesis of outflow tract rotation during cardiac development: The pulmonary push concept

Background: Understanding of cardiac outflow tract (OFT) remodeling is essential to explain repositioning of the aorta and pulmonary orifice. In wild type embryos (E9.5–14.5), second heart field contribution (SHF) to the OFT was studied using expression patterns of Islet 1, Nkx2.5, MLC‐2a, WT‐1, and 3D‐reconstructions. Abnormal remodeling was studied in VEGF120/120 embryos. Results: In wild type, Islet 1 and Nkx2.5 positive myocardial precursors formed an asymmetric elongated column almost exclusively at the pulmonary side of the OFT up to the pulmonary orifice. In VEGF120/120 embryos, the Nkx2.5‐positive mesenchymal population was disorganized with a short extension along the pulmonary OFT. Conclusions: We postulate that normally the pulmonary trunk and orifice are pushed in a higher and more frontal position relative to the aortic orifice by asymmetric addition of SHF‐myocardium. Deficient or disorganized right ventricular OFT expansion might explain cardiac malformations with abnormal position of the great arteries, such as double outlet right ventricle. Developmental Dynamics 241:1413–1422, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Myocardial progenitors in the pharyngeal regions migrate to distinct conotruncal regions

Background: The cardiac progenitor cells for the outflow tract (OFT) reside in the visceral mesoderm and mesodermal core of the pharyngeal region, which are defined as the secondary and anterior heart fields (SHF and AHF), respectively. Results: Using chick embryos, we injected fluorescent‐dye into the SHF or AHF at stage 14, and the destinations of the labeled cells were examined at stage 31. Labeled cells from the right SHF were found in the myocardium on the left dorsal side of the OFT, and cells from the left SHF were detected on the right ventral side of the OFT. Labeled cells from the right and left AHF migrated to regions of the ventral wall of the OFT close to the aortic and pulmonary valves, respectively. Conclusion: These observations indicate that myocardial progenitors from the SHF and AHF contribute to distinct conotruncal regions and that cells from the SHF migrate rotationally while cells from the AHF migrate in a non‐rotational manner. Developmental Dynamics 241:284–293, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Developmental pattern of ANF gene expression reveals a strict localization of cardiac chamber formation in chicken

In mouse, atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) gene expression was shown to be a marker for chamber formation within the embryonic heart. To gain insight into the process of chamber formation in the chicken embryonic heart, we analyzed the expression pattern of cANF during development. We found cANF to be specifically expressed in the myocardium of the morphologically distinguishable atrial and ventricular chambers, similar to ANF in mouse. cANF expression was never detected in the myocardium of the atrioventricular canal (AVC), inner curvature, and outflow tract (OFT), which is lined by endocardial cushions. Expression was strictly excluded from the interventricular myocardium and most proximal part of the bundle branches, as identified by the expression of Msx‐2, whereas the rest of the bundle branches, trabeculae, and surrounding working myocardium did express cANF. The myocardium that forms de novo within the cushions after looping did not express cANF. At HH9 cANF expression was first observed in a subset of cardiomyocytes, which was localized ventrally in the fused heart tube and laterally in the unfused cardiac sheets. Together, these results show that cANF expression can be used to distinguish differentiated chamber (working) myocardium, including the peripheral ventricular conduction system, from embryonic myocardium. We conclude that differentiation of chamber myocardium takes place already at HH9 at the ventral side of the linear heart tube, possibly preceded by latero‐medial signals in the unfused cardiac sheets. Anat Rec 266:93–102, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

BMP4 is required in the anterior heart field and its derivatives for endocardial cushion remodeling, outflow tract septation, and semilunar valve development

The endocardial cushions play a critical role in septation of the four-chambered mammalian heart and in the formation of the valve leaflets that control blood flow through the heart. Within the outflow tract (OFT), both cardiac neural crest and endocardial-derived mesenchymal cells contribute to the endocardial cushions. Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4) is required for endocardial cushion development and for normal septation of the OFT. In the present study, we show that anterior heart field (AHF)-derived myocardium is an essential source of BMP4 required for normal endocardial cushion expansion and remodeling. Loss of BMP4 from the AHF in mice results in an insufficient number of cells in the developing OFT endocardial cushions, defective cushion remodeling, ventricular septal defects, persistent truncus arteriosus, and abnormal semilunar valve formation.     

Altered hypoxia‐inducible factor‐1 alpha expression levels correlate with coronary vessel anomalies

The outflow tract myocardium and other regions corresponding to the location of the major coronary vessels of the developing chicken heart, display a high level of hypoxia as assessed by the hypoxia indicator EF5. The EF5‐positive tissues were also specifically positive for nuclear‐localized hypoxia inducible factor‐1 alpha (HIF‐1α), the oxygen‐sensitive component of the hypoxia inducible factor‐1 (HIF‐1) heterodimer. This led to our hypothesis that there is a “template” of hypoxic tissue that determines the stereotyped pattern of the major coronary vessels. In this study, we disturbed this template by altering ambient oxygen levels (hypoxia 15%; hyperoxia 75–40%) during the early phases of avian coronary vessel development, in order to alter tissue hypoxia, HIF‐1α protein expression, and its downstream target genes without high mortality. We also altered HIF‐1α gene expression in the embryonic outflow tract cardiomyocytes by injecting an adenovirus containing a constitutively active form of HIF‐1α (AdCA5). We assayed for coronary anomalies using anti‐alpha‐smooth muscle actin immunohistology. When incubated under abnormal oxygen levels or injected with a low titer of the AdCA5, coronary arteries displayed deviations from their normal proximal connections to the aorta. These deviations were similar to known clinical anomalies of coronary arteries. These findings indicated that developing coronary vessels may be subject to a level of regulation that is dependent on differential oxygen levels within cardiac tissues and subsequent HIF‐1 regulation of gene expression. Developmental Dynamics 238:2688–2700, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.