Radio-frequency lesions of the thalamus produce delayed-nonmatching-to-sample impairments comparable to pyrithiamine-induced encephalopathy in rats.

Rats were trained and matched on a delayed-nonmatching-to-sample (DNMTS) task and randomly assigned to treatment. In Experiment 1, radio-frequency (RF) lesions were aimed at lateral portions of the internal medullary lamina (L-IML), midline thalamus (MT), mammillary bodies (MB), and the combination of MT and MB. In Experiment 2, RF lesions were aimed at the fornix. After recovery, DNMTS was retrained at retention intervals retention interval of 3.0-18.0 s, the critical retention interval for 75% DNMTS accuracy was determined by a staircase procedure, and spontaneous exploration was observed in an open field. L-IML lesions produced significant deficits on DNMTS and exploratory behavior that were comparable to deficits on the same tasks in rats recovered from pyrithiamine-induced thiamine deficiency. Fornix lesions produced significant DNMTS deficits that were substantially smaller than for the L-IML group. The MT, MB, and MT+MB treatments had no significant effect on DNMTS.     

MK-801 prevents brain lesions and delayed-nonmatching-to-sample deficits produced by pyrithiamine-induced encephalopathy in rats.

Rats were trained on a spatial delayed-nonmatching-to-sample (DNMTS) task and assigned by block randomization to one of four treatments: pyrithiamine-induced thiamine deficiency (PTD), PTD with administration of MK-801 after 12 days, control with MK-801 treatment, and control without MK-801. After 15 days of treatment followed by 21 days of recovery, the PTD rats showed significant deficits for DNMTS accuracy at retention intervals (RI) that ranged from 3.0 s to 15.0 s, the RIs that produced 75% accuracy on DNMTS in staircase training, and the rate at which a novel radial arm maze task was learned. The PTD-treated rats had consistent lesions in the thalamus and the mammillary bodies. MK-801 protected rats from both behavioral deficits and brain lesions (assessed quantitatively and qualitatively) that were produced by the PTD treatment.     

大鼠腰髓膨大部脊髓小脑束神经元向小脑皮质的投射

将大鼠胸髓在Ｔ＿（１０）—Ｔ＿（１１）间的左侧半横切断，然后将ＷＧＡ—ＨＲＰ注入腰髓膨大部，观察标记终末（Ｌａｂｅｌｅｄｔｅｒｍｉｎａｌｓ，ＬＴ）在小脑皮质的分布。结果表明：当ＷＧＡ—ＨＲＰ注入腰髓膨大左侧时，ＬＴ主要分布在前叶（约占全部ＬＴ的７５％），其中Ⅲ和Ⅳ小叶最多（３８％和２６％），后叶较少（２５％）。ＬＴ集中分布在小叶尖端，中间部较少，基部更少。注入同侧的小脑皮质ＬＴ较多（８２％），对侧较少（１８％）。在Ⅲ和Ⅳ小叶的横切面上ＬＴ可以划分为距中线１．０～１．５ｍｍ，１．５～２．０ｍｍ，２．０～２．５ｍｍ３个集中分布区。当ＷＧＡ—ＨＲＰ注入腰髓膨大右侧时，ＬＴ主要分布在前叶（７８％），其中Ⅲ和Ⅳ小叶最多（２７％和２４％），后叶较少（２２％）。ＬＴ主要分布在小叶的中间部，小叶尖端较少，基部更少。注入部同侧小脑皮质ＬＴ较多（９０％），对侧较少（１０％）。在Ⅲ和Ⅳ小叶的横切面上它们可以区分为距中线０．５～１．０ｍｍ，１．０～１．５ｍｍ，１．５～２．０ｍｍ３个集中分布区。     

The topographic order of inputs to nucleus accumbens in the rat

Afferents to the nucleus accumbens have been studied with the retrograde transport of unconjugated wheatgerm agglutinin as detected by immunohistochemistry using the peroxidase-antiperoxidase method, in order to define precisely afferent topography from the cortex, thalamus, midbrain and amygdala. Cortical afferent topography was extremely precise. The largest number of cells was found following injections to the anterior accumbens. Anteromedial injections labelled a very large extent of the subiculum and part of the entorhinal cortex. Anterolateral injections produced less subicular and entorhinal label but also labelled the posterior perirhinal cortex. Posteromedial injections labelled only the ventral subiculum and a few cells in the adjacent medial entorhinal cortex. Posterolateral injections labelled few lateral entorhinal neurones but did label a long anteroposterior strip of perirhinal cortex. Prefrontal cortex label was found only after anterior accumbens injections. In the amygdala labelled neurones were found in cortical, central, lateral posterior, anteromedial and basolateral nuclei. Basolateral amygdala projected chiefly to the anteromedial accumbens and central nucleus to anterolateral accumbens. Only a weak amygdala label was found after posterior accumbens injections. In the ventral tegmental area, the midline interfascicular nucleus projected only to medial accumbens. The paranigral ventral tegmentum projected chiefly to the medial accumbens and the parabrachial area chiefly to the lateral accumbens. In the thalamus, heaviest label was found after anterior accumbens injections. Most cells were found in the paraventricular, reuniens and rhomboid nuclei and at posterior thalamic levels lying medial to the fasciculus retroflexus. There was only restricted topography found from thalamic sites. Retrograde label was also found in the ventral pallidum and lateral hypothalamus. Single small injection sites within accumbens received input from the whole anteroposterior extent of the thalamus and ventral tegmentum. The medial accumbens was found to have a close relationship to habenula, globus pallidus and interfascicular nucleus. It appeared that the heaviest volume of inputs projected to anteromedial accumbens, where output from hippocampus (CAI), subiculum, entorhinal and prefrontal cortices converged with output from amygdala, midline thalamus and ventral tegmentum.     

The bony tentorium of the cat: Stereotaxic coordinates

The cat's tentorium cerebelli is an osseous structure which overlies much of the brain stem. None of the current brain atlases list the coordinates of this bony projection. With a stiff wire and a stereotaxic apparatus, the location of its free edge and dorsal surface was mapped in 1.0 mm steps in the skulls of 16 cats. In the midline the dorsal surface meets the calvaria at a point 7 mm posterior and 15 mm superior to the atlas zero (intra-aural plane + 10 mm horizontal). From this junction it slopes inferiorly and anteriorly between the cerebrum and cerebellum along a 50° slope to terminate along a curved line. In the midline this free edge is located 0.5 mm anterior, and 6.5 mm superior to the atlas zero. It recedes laterally along a curved line to a point 6 mm lateral, 6 mm superior and 3 mm posterior to the atlas zero. The free edge then curves forward and descends to pass through an imaginary line 3 mm anterior and 4.5 mm inferior to the atlas zero. Statistical comparisons between measurements made in male and female cats revealed no significant differences.     

Prenatal development of calbindin immunoreactivity in the dorsal thalamus of the rat.

The distribution of calbindin immunoreactivity was studied in the developing rat dorsal thalamus at embryonic days 14, 16, 18 and 20. At early stages (days 14-16), calbindin is expressed throughout the dorsal thalamic cell mass. Most intense labeling occurs in cells adjacent to the ventricular surface, in a spatial gradient reflecting the well-known outside-in generation pattern. Between days 16 and 20, calbindin-positive periventricular cells are redistributed in the dorsal thalamus according to two different patterns. They first become oriented tangentially within the periventricular layer, and diminish in number at the central locus where midline thalamic fusion occurs at 18 days. Periventricular calbindin immunoreactivity becomes restricted to a ring of late-born cells surrounding the gray commissure. Recognizable portions of this ring-shaped primordium will mature forming n.paratenialis, n.reuniens, n.paraventricularis, and n.subparafascicularis magnocellularis. Simultaneously, a massive contingent of radially-oriented, fusiform, calbindin-positive young neurons extends from the periventricular ring-shaped aggregate to the lateral brain surface at the caudoventral pole of the dorsal thalamus at embryonic days 17/18. These cells surround the primordium of the medial geniculate body, participating in the constitution of its marginal zone, and invade the lateral posterior nucleus, accumulating within its caudomedial part. Other portions of this stream form the parvocellular subparafascicular nucleus and the peripeduncular nucleus. The observed patterns of calbindin expression suggest that dorsal thalamic postmitotic neurons transiently express the marker during initial phases of axogenesis, whereas a specific, late-born population expresses calbindin continuously into adulthood. This late subpopulation displays migratory behavior, and finally subdivides into several nuclei of the mature midline, superficial and posterior thalamus.     

Calretinin distribution in the thalamus of the rat: immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization histochemical analyses.

The distribution of calretinin-containing cells was examined by in situ hybridization histochemistry and compared with the immunohistochemical mapping of calretinin in the thalamus of the rat. Results revealed a close correspondence between the immunohistochemical localization of cell bodies and the messenger RNA label produced by the calretinin oligonucleotide probe. Calretinin cells were most prominent in the midline (paraventricular, reuniens, rhomboid) and intralaminar (central medial, paracentral) nuclei and in a group of cells along the rostral central gray which appeared continuous with the caudal extent of the midline nuclei. A subpopulation of calretinin cell bodies was also identified in the reticular nucleus. The mediorostral lateral posterior nucleus, subparafascicular, lateral geniculate and habenular nuclei also contained calretinin messenger RNA probe label. In contrast, no positive cells were found in the anterior, ventral or posterior thalamic nuclei. The distribution of calretinin cells did not correspond directly with that of other histochemical markers. Thus, the in situ hybridization histochemical and immunohistochemical results revealed calretinin as a unique identifying marker for distinct sets of thalamic neurons.     

Collateral branches of cerebellopontine axons reach the thalamus, superior colliculus, or inferior olive: a double-fluorescence and combined fluorescence-horseradish peroxidase study in the rat

Retrograde double-labeling methods that used two different fluorescent dyes or a fluorescent dye in combination with wheat germ agglutinin horseradish peroxidase were used in the rat to study the collateralization of cerebellopontine fibers to the thalamus, the superior colliculus, or the inferior olive. In cases with combined basilar pontine nuclei and thalamus injections, double-labeled neurons were located in the rostral part of the lateral cerebellar nucleus as well as within the interpositus anterior and interpositus posterior nuclei. These cells are medium to large in size and multipolar-shaped. A much smaller number of double-labeled cells was observed in the combined basilar pontine nuclei and superior colliculus injections. In these cases most of the double-labeled cells were intermediate- to large-sized and either bipolar- or multipolar-shaped. Such neurons were distributed throughout the rostrocaudal extent of the lateral cerebellar nucleus, with only a few double-labeled cells located in the interpositus anterior and posterior nuclei. Finally, in the cases with combined basilar pontine nuclei and inferior olive injections, double-labeled cells were located in interpositus anterior and posterior nuclei and the medial portion of the lateral cerebellar nucleus. The double-labeled cells were relatively small in size and most were spindle-shaped. No double-labeled cells were observed in the medial cerebellar nucleus in any of the three injection combinations. Based upon the observation of double-labeled neurons in the deep cerebellar nuclei in each of the three injection combinations involving the basilar pontine nuclei, we conclude that cerebellar projections to the basilar pons arise in part as collaterals of axons that project to the thalamus, superior colliculus, or the inferior olive.     

Olfactory discrimination in rats with anterior amygdala lesions

In Experiment 1, rats with posterior lateral olfactory tract/anterior amygdala lesions or with control neocortical lesions were tested for retention of a preoperatively learned odor detection task and for learning on new odor discrimination problems. All rats had perfect or near-perfect retention of the detection task, and there were no discernible differences between groups in learning on the new odor discrimination problems. In Experiment 2, an intensity-difference threshold for olfaction was determined in 4 rats before and after lesions of the posterior lateral olfactory tract and anterior amygdala. There were no apparent differences between pre- and postoperative performances on this psychophysical test. These results indicate that lateral olfactory tract projections to the amygdala and posterior olfactory cortex are not essential for normal performance on simple olfactory discrimination tasks.     

Subcortical afferents of the amygdaloid complex in the rat: an HRP study

Small unilateral deposits of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) were delivered into the various nuclei of the amygdaloid complex in 44 rats. Retrogradely labeled neurons were observed in thalamus (anterior, midline, posterior nuclei, parafascicular complex), hypothalamus (ventromedial nucleus, lateral area, and ventral remamillary nucleus) and brain stem (dorsal raphe and parabrachial nuclei).     

Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the dorsal thalamus of the monotreme Tachyglossus aculeatus,the short beaked echidna

We have examined the cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the dorsal thalamus of the short beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), using Nissl and myelin staining, immunoreactivity for parvalbumin, calbindin, calretinin and non-phosphorylated neurofilament protein (SMI-32 antibody), and histochemistry for acetylcholinesterase and NADPH diaphorase. Immunohistochemical methods revealed many nuclear boundaries, which were difficult to discern with Nissl staining. Parvalbumin immunoreactive somata were concentrated in the ventral posterior, reticular, posterior, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei, while parvalbumin immunoreactivity of the neuropil was present throughout all but the midline nuclei. Large numbers of calbindin immunoreactive somata were also found within the midline thalamic nuclei, and thalamic sensory relay nuclei. Immunoreactivity for calretinin was found in many small somata within the lateral geniculate “a” nucleus, with other labelled somata found in the lateral geniculate “b” nucleus, ventral posterior medial and ventral posterior lateral nuclei. Immunoreactivity with the SMI-32 antibody was largely confined to somata and neuropil within the thalamocortical relay nuclei (ventral posterior medial and lateral nuclei, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei and the posterior thalamic nucleus). In broad terms there were many similarities between the thalamus of this monotreme and that of eutheria (e.g. disposition of somatosensory thalamus, complementarity of parvalbumin and calbindin immunoreactive structures), but there were some unique features of the thalamus of the echidna. These include the relatively small size of the thalamic reticular nucleus and the preponderance of calbindin immunoreactive neurons over parvalbumin immunoreactive neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus.     

Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the dorsal thalamus of the monotreme Tachyglossus aculeatus, the short beaked echidna

We have examined the cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the dorsal thalamus of the short beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), using Nissl and myelin staining, immunoreactivity for parvalbumin, calbindin, calretinin and non-phosphorylated neurofilament protein (SMI-32 antibody), and histochemistry for acetylcholinesterase and NADPH diaphorase. Immunohistochemical methods revealed many nuclear boundaries, which were difficult to discern with Nissl staining. Parvalbumin immunoreactive somata were concentrated in the ventral posterior, reticular, posterior, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei, while parvalbumin immunoreactivity of the neuropil was present throughout all but the midline nuclei. Large numbers of calbindin immunoreactive somata were also found within the midline thalamic nuclei, and thalamic sensory relay nuclei. Immunoreactivity for calretinin was found in many small somata within the lateral geniculate “a” nucleus, with other labelled somata found in the lateral geniculate “b” nucleus, ventral posterior medial and ventral posterior lateral nuclei. Immunoreactivity with the SMI-32 antibody was largely confined to somata and neuropil within the thalamocortical relay nuclei (ventral posterior medial and lateral nuclei, lateral and medial geniculate nuclei and the posterior thalamic nucleus). In broad terms there were many similarities between the thalamus of this monotreme and that of eutheria (e.g. disposition of somatosensory thalamus, complementarity of parvalbumin and calbindin immunoreactive structures), but there were some unique features of the thalamus of the echidna. These include the relatively small size of the thalamic reticular nucleus and the preponderance of calbindin immunoreactive neurons over parvalbumin immunoreactive neurons in the ventral posterior nucleus.     

Pattern of distribution of serotonergic fibers to the thalamus of the rat

It is well established that serotonergic (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) fibers, mainly originating from the dorsal and median raphe nuclei of the brainstem, distribute throughout the forebrain, most heavily to ‘limbic’ forebrain structures. Few reports have examined the distribution of 5-HT fibers to the thalamus and none to our knowledge using immunoprocedures for the detection of the serotonin transporter (SERT)—a very sensitive marker for 5-HT fibers. Using immunohistochemical methods for SERT, we examined the pattern of distribution of 5-HT fibers to the thalamus in the rat. We show that serotonergic fibers are heavily concentrated in midline, intralaminar and association nuclei of the thalamus, and with the exception of the lateral geniculate complex, weakly distributed to principal nuclei of thalamus. Specifically, we demonstrate that 5-HT fibers are densely concentrated in the anteroventral, anteromedial and interanteromedial nuclei of the anterior thalamus, the paraventricular, rhomboid and reuniens nuclei of the midline thalamus, the central medial and central lateral nuclei of the intralaminar thalamus, the intermediodorsal nucleus, the lateral dorsal nucleus, and the dorsal and ventral lateral geniculate nuclei and intergeniculate leaflet of the LGN complex. Less densely innervated sites include the mediodorsal, paracentral, parafascicular, lateral posterior and submedial nuclei of thalamus. Remaining regions of the thalamus, largely consisting of principal nuclei, contained few 5-HT fibers. This pattern of 5-HT innervation indicates that serotonin/serotonergic fibers mainly affect thalamic nuclei with connections to ‘non-principal’ or limbic regions of the cortex (or forebrain). This suggests that serotonergic fibers to the thalamus may exert a significant influence on affective and cognitive functions, possibly complementing the actions of 5-HT fibers to other parts of the brain involved in emotional and cognitive behaviors.     

The window of opportunity for administration of magnesium therapy following focal brain injury is 24 h but is task dependent in the rat

The present study was conducted to establish the window of opportunity for the administration of a regimen of MgCl2 pharmacotherapy following focal injury to the brain. Rats were subjected to unilateral electrolytic lesions of the sensorimotor cortex (SMC) and administered a regimen of MgCl2 (1.0 mmol/kg) or 0.9% saline (1.0 ml/kg) beginning either 15 min, 8 h or 24 h after injury. Subsequent injections were administered 24 and 72 h after the initial treatment. Behavioral testing assessed recovery of function on several sensorimotor behaviors for 24 days following injury. The results of the present study suggest that treatment with a regimen of MgCl2 significantly facilitated recovery of function on the forelimb-->forelimb and vibrissae-->forelimb placing tests when administered 15 min, 8 h or 24 h after injury compared with saline-treated rats. Recovery of locomotor placing was significantly facilitated at 15 min and 8 h but not at 24 h compared with saline-treated rats. In addition, the ability of MgCl2 to limit neuronal loss in the ipsilateral ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus of the thalamus was seen at only the 15-min treatment interval. These results suggest that the window of opportunity for MgCl2 pharmacotherapy is 24 h, task dependent and is much shorter for protecting neurons in the VPL.     

Asymmetric propagation of spreading depression along the anteroposterior axis of the cerebral cortex in mice

The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether or not spreading depression (CSD) propagates symmetrically along the anteroposterior axis of the cortex of mice, and to determine where CSD should be elicited to achieve a uniform exposure of the cortex to this phenomenon. Experiments were performed in halothane-anesthetized mice, with three different locations aligned 1.5 mm from the midline used for either KCl elicitation of CSD or the recording of its propagation. Our results demonstrated that, at least in the mouse cortex, CSD propagated much more effectively from posterior to anterior regions than in the opposite direction. This feature was due to a different efficacy of propagation in the two opposite directions, and not to a reduced susceptibility of occipital regions to CSD elicitation. Heterogeneous CSD propagation constitutes a potential pitfall for neurochemical studies of post-CSD changes in mice, as brain tissue samples collected for this purpose should be uniformly exposed to CSD. Occipital sites for CSD induction are clearly optimal for this purpose. If CSD propagation is confirmed to be more effective from posterior to anterior regions in other species, this may be relevant to the pathophysiology of classical migraine because the most frequent aura symptoms (i.e., visual disturbances) originate in the occipital cortex.     

Differential effects of posterior septal lesions on dispositional and representational memory

A distinction between two classes of memory has been made in terms of the sensory availability of cues at the time of making discriminations which are influenced by past experience. Three tasks objectively defining this distinction were learned in a T-maze by three groups of rats: a delayed nonmatching-to-sample (DNMTS) which depends on representational memory; a simple sensory discrimination (SD) which depends on dispositional memory; and a more difficult discrimination, which also depends on dispositional memory, called the simultaneous conditional discrimination (SCD). The DNMTS and SD tasks were acquired quickly; the SCD task took many more trials. Posterior septal lesions impaired DNMTS performance but had no effect on retention of either the conditional discrimination (SCD) or the simple sensory discrimination (SD) tasks which depend on dispositional memory. The present study provides further evidence that dispositional and representational memory systems have at least partially distinct anatomical substrates in the brain and that it is the representational and not the conditional aspects of the DNMTS task that are impaired by the septal lesions.     

Cerebellar corticovestibular projections from lobule IX to the descending vestibular nucleus in the cat. A retrograde wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase study

The distribution of Purkinje cells projecting to the descending vestibular nucleus was studied in lobule IX (uvula) of the cat by the retrograde wheat germ agglutinin-horseradish peroxidase method. In the transverse plane labeled Purkinje cells were seen diffusely within 1.0 mm from the midline and densely for 250-500 microns at around 1.0 mm lateral to the midline. Reconstruction of the distribution in the horizontal plane revealed that they were distributed in longitudinal areas extending in the apicobasal extent of lobule IX.     

Lesions of specific and nonspecific thalamic nuclei affect prefrontal cortex-dependent aspects of spatial working memory

Three studies compared lesions of specific mediodorsal (MD) and nonspecific midline/intralaminar (M/IL) and ventromedial (VM) thalamic nuclei placed to spare the anterior nuclei. Lesions of MD, M/IL, or VM impaired delayed matching trained with retractable levers, a measure of spatial memory affected by prefrontal cortical lesions. The effects of the MD lesion increased at longer retention intervals and thus appeared delay dependent. The effects of M/IL and VM lesions were delay independent. Even when combined, these lesions had no effect on varying choice radial maze delayed nonmatching, a task sensitive to hippocampal or anterior thalamic (but not prefrontal) lesions. These results demonstrate effects of MD, M/IL, and VM lesions distinct from the contributions of hippocampus or anterior thalamus to spatial memory.     

Cerebellar connections to the rostral reticular nucleus of the thalamus in the rat

We studied the cerebellar connections to the reticular nucleus thalamus (RNT) by means of retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) in the rat. Specific HRP pressure injections to the rostral RNT (1.6-1.8 mm caudal to bregma) resulted in retrograde labelling of neurones in the cerebellar nuclei. The rostral RNT showed specific topographical organization of its cerebellar connections. Microinjections into the rostral RNT, 1.6 mm caudal to bregma, produced numerous HRP-labelled neurones within the anterior interposed (emboliform nucleus) and scarce HRP-labelled neurones within the lateral (dentate nucleus) cerebellar nuclei, whereas injections into the rostral RNT, 1.8 mm caudal to bregma, produced numerous HRP-labelled neurones within the posterior interposed (globose nucleus) and scarce lightly HRP-labelled neurones within the lateral (dentate nucleus) cerebellar nuclei. Cerebellar connections with the rostral RNT were exclusively ipsilateral to the injection site. No HRP-labelled cells were detected in the medial (fastigial nucleus) cerebellar nucleus. The cerebellar connections reach the RNT via the superior cerebellar peduncle. By contrast, HRP injections into the anterior, posterior interposed and lateral cerebellar nuclei produced no labelled cells within the RNT. This study demonstrates the existence of direct cerebello-RNT but not RNT-cerebellar connections. The presence of the cerebello-RNT connections introduces a new route through which the cerebellum may influence RNT and thus cerebral cortical activity.     

Anatomy of the arcus tendineus fasciae pelvis in females

Because of its proximity to the urethra, the anterior part of the arcus tendineus fasciae pelvis (ATFP) may be used in urethrosuspension procedures for urinary stress incontinence. In this study, 10 embalmed female cadaver hemipelves were dissected and their gross anatomy described. In females, the ATFP is a condensation of the endopelvic fascia. The anterior attachment of the ATFP is to the caudal inner surface of the body of the pubic bone at a site averaging 4 mm lateral to the pubic symphysis and covering an average area of 53 mm(2). Posteriorly, it attaches to the medial surface of the ischial spine. In nine of the 10 hemipelves the first anterior centimeters of the ATFP have a clear lateral fixation either to the lateral part of the levator ani muscle (n = 1), to the fascia covering the obturator internus muscle (n = 7), or to the obturator membrane (n = 1). Medially from the ATFP derives a 2-3-cm long flat fibrous attachment to the posterolateral aspect of the urethra. In eight unembalmed cadavers, the ATFP gave way at a pulling force of 8.2 kg (range = 3.5-11.5 kg). The ATFP resists caudal movement of the proximal anterior vaginal wall and the urethra in the upright posture and, therefore, may be suitable for urethrosuspension procedures.