Expression of heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 and Hsp 40 in colorectal cancer

Heat shock protein (Hsp) 70 and Hsp 40 are stress proteins that cooperate as chaperones in mammalian cells. The present study was designed to determine the expression levels of Hsp 70 and Hsp 40 in colorectal cancer by immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis. Among 50 colorectal cancer tissues studied, 80% and 14% of tumors showed specific immunoreactivity to Hsp 70 and Hsp 40, respectively. Hsp 70 and Hsp 40 were overexpressed in cancer tissue samples compared with normal tissues, on both analytic sets. However, there were no significant correlations between their expression and various clinicopathological parameters of colorectal cancer. Hsp 70 and Hsp 40 may be tumor markers for colorectal cancer.     

A novel class of specific Hsp90 small molecule inhibitors demonstrate in vitro and in vivo anti-tumor activity in human melanoma cells

Hsp90 is required for conformational maturation and stability of numerous key signaling proteins (clients) involved in cell proliferation and transformation. Here we describe two novel Hsp90 inhibitors, PF-4470296 and PF-3823863, demonstrate a differential sensitivity in B-Raf mutant (V600E) versus wild-type protein degradation. These two inhibitors inhibit proliferation and anchorage-independent growth, and abolish in vivo xenograft tumor growth in melanoma cells regardless of B-Raf mutation status. Mutant B-Raf protein and other Hsp90 clients, such as cMet, ErbB2, C-Raf, and AKT, are degraded in cells and xenograft tumors. Our results indicate that Hsp90 inhibitors induce anti-tumor activity in melanoma cells and are likely to show therapeutic benefit in melanoma patients by collaboratively targeting multiple pathways.     

Oxidative inhibition of Hsp90 disrupts the super‐chaperone complex and attenuates pancreatic adenocarcinoma in vitro and in vivo

Pancreatic cancer is almost always fatal, in part because of its delayed diagnosis, poor prognosis, rapid progression and chemoresistance. Oncogenic proteins are stabilized by the Hsp90, making it a potential therapeutic target. We investigated the oxidative stress‐mediated dysfunction of Hsp90 and the hindrance of its chaperonic activity by a carbazole alkaloid, mahanine, as a strategic therapeutic in pancreatic cancer. Mahanine exhibited antiproliferative activity against several pancreatic cancer cell lines through apoptosis. It induced early accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) leading to thiol oxidation, aggregation and dysfunction of Hsp90 in MIAPaCa‐2. N‐acetyl‐L ‐cysteine prevented mahanine‐induced ROS accumulation, aggregation of Hsp90, degradation of client proteins and cell death. Mahanine disrupted Hsp90‐Cdc37 complex in MIAPaCa‐2 as a consequence of ROS generation. Client proteins were restored by MG132, suggesting a possible role of ubiquitinylated protein degradation pathway. Surface plasmon resonance study demonstrated that the rate of interaction of mahanine with recombinant Hsp90 is in the range of seconds. Molecular dynamics simulation showed its weak interactions with Hsp90. However, no disruption of the Hsp90‐Cdc37 complex was observed at an early time point, thus ruling out that mahanine directly disrupts the complex. It did not impede the ATP binding pocket of Hsp90. Mahanine also reduced in vitro migration and tube formation in cancer cells. Further, it inhibited orthotopic pancreatic tumor growth in nude mice. Taken together, these results provide evidence for mahanine‐induced ROS‐mediated destabilization of Hsp90 chaperone activity resulting in Hsp90‐Cdc37 disruption leading to apoptosis, suggesting its potential as a specific target in pancreatic cancer.     

A novel pan‐cancer biomarker plasma heat shock protein 90alpha and its diagnosis determinants in clinic

A sensitive and specific diagnosis biomarker, in principle scalable to most cancer types, is needed to reduce the prevalent cancer mortality. Meanwhile, the investigation of diagnosis determinants of a biomarker will facilitate the interpretation of its screening results in clinic. Here we design a large‐scale (1558 enrollments), multicenter (multiple hospitals), and cross‐validation (two datasets) clinic study to validate plasma Hsp90α quantified by ELISA as a pan‐cancer biomarker. ROC curve shows the optimum diagnostic cutoff is 69.19 ng/mL in discriminating various cancer patients from all controls (AUC 0.895, sensitivity 81.33% and specificity 81.65% in test cohort; AUC 0.893, sensitivity 81.72% and specificity 81.03% in validation cohort). Similar results are noted in detecting early‐stage cancer patients. Plasma Hsp90α maintains also broad‐spectrum for cancer subtypes, especially with 91.78% sensitivity and 91.96% specificity in patients with AFP‐limited liver cancer. In addition, we demonstrate levels of plasma Hsp90α are determined by ADAM10 expression, which will affect Hsp90α content in exosomes. Furthermore, Western blotting and PRM‐based quantitative proteomics identify that partial false ELISA‐negative patients secret high levels of plasma Hsp90α. Mechanism analysis reveal that TGFβ‐PKCγ gene signature defines a distinct pool of hyperphosphorylated Hsp90α at Theronine residue. In clinic, a mechanistically relevant population of false ELISA‐negative patients express also higher levels of PKCγ. In sum, plasma Hsp90α is a novel pan‐cancer diagnosis biomarker, and cancer diagnosis with plasma Hsp90α is particularly effective in those patients with high expression of ADAM10, but may be insufficient to detect the patients with low ADAM10 and those with hyperphosphorylated Hsp90α.     

Heat shock protein 90 inhibitor NVP‐AUY922 exerts potent activity against adult T‐cell leukemia–lymphoma cells

Adult T‐cell leukemia–lymphoma (ATL), an aggressive neoplasm etiologically associated with HTLV‐1, is a chemoresistant malignancy. Heat shock protein 90 (HSP90) is involved in folding and functions as a chaperone for multiple client proteins, many of which are important in tumorigenesis. In this study, we examined NVP‐AUY922 (AUY922), a second generation isoxazole‐based non‐geldanamycin HSP90 inhibitor, and confirmed its effects on survival of ATL‐related cell lines. Analysis using FACS revealed that AUY922 induced cell‐cycle arrest and apoptosis; it also inhibited the growth of primary ATL cells, but not of normal PBMCs. AUY922 caused strong upregulation of HSP70, a surrogate marker of HSP90 inhibition, and a dose‐dependent decrease in HSP90 client proteins associated with cell survival, proliferation, and cell cycle in the G₁ phase, including phospho‐Akt, Akt, IKKα, IKKβ, IKKγ, Cdk4, Cdk6, and survivin. Interestingly, AUY922 induced downregulation of the proviral integration site for Moloney murine leukemia virus (PIM) in ATL cells. The PIM family (PIM‐1, ‐2, ‐3) is made up of oncogenes that encode a serine/threonine protein kinase family. As PIM kinases have multiple functions involved in cell proliferation, survival, differentiation, apoptosis, and tumorigenesis, their downregulation could play an important role in AUY922‐induced death of ATL cells. In fact, SGI‐1776, a pan‐PIM kinase inhibitor, successfully inhibited the growth of primary ATL cells as well as ATL‐related cell lines. Our findings suggest that AUY922 is an effective therapeutic agent for ATL, and PIM kinases may be a novel therapeutic target.     

B-CLL患者瘤细胞膜表面Id-ScFv和人Hsp70的制备及其抗瘤效应

背景与目的:恶性B型淋巴细胞表面免疫球蛋白(surface membrane immunoglobulin,SmIg)表达的独特型决定簇(Idiotypic determinant,Id)不仅是该类肿瘤特异性标记,也是该类肿瘤的特异性抗原,可诱导机体对其产生特异性免疫应答,但由于Id是自体成分,分子量小,免疫原性较弱。人热休克蛋白70(heat shock protein,Hsp70)是一类重要的抗原提呈分子,能有效加强抗原肽的免疫原性。本研究通过制备慢性B型淋巴细胞性白血病(B-cell chronic lymphatic leukemia,B-CLL)患者瘤细胞膜表面独特型单链抗体(Idiotypic determinant single-chain antibody,Id-ScFv)和Hsp70两种蛋白,在体外研究两者联合抗瘤作用并初步探讨其机制。方法:分别在大肠杆菌中表达Id-ScFv和Hsp70两种蛋白,表达产物经SDS-PAGE电泳(sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electropheresis)及ELISA(enzyme-linked immunosorbentassay)检测鉴定后,分别用金属螯合层析和离子交换层析纯化并在体外将这两种蛋白结合成复合物(Hsp70-Id)。用MTT法及检测Id-ScFv组、人Hsp70组及Hsp70-Id组刺激外周血单个核细胞(peripheral blood mononuclear cell,PBMC)的增殖作用,以ELISA法检测各组培养上清中IL-12和TNF-α水平,并用流式细胞术检测各组PBMC亚群的变化。用活细胞计数法检测各组被激活的PBMC对慢性B细胞白血病细胞株Daudi、慢性髓性白血病细胞株K562和肝癌细胞株HepG2的杀伤作用。结果:经SDS-PAGE电泳分析纯化后表达产物的分子量大约为30ku(Id-ScFv蛋白)和70ku(Hsp70蛋白),分别与其理论预期值相符。PBMC的增殖作用、培养上清中IL-12和TNF-琢水平,Hsp70-Id组明显强于Id-ScFv组和人Hsp70组(P<0.05),而Id-ScFv组和人Hsp70组明显强于阴性对照组(P<0.05)。流式细胞术检测显示在Hsp70-Id组、Id-ScFv组和人Hsp70组PBMC中CD8 T细胞亚群的百分率均有增加,其中Hsp70-Id组最明显。在Id-ScFv组和Hsp70-Id组激活的PBMC对Daudi细胞的杀伤作用较K562、HepG2细胞强(P<0.05),且Hsp70-Id组激活的PBMC对Daudi细胞的杀伤作用明显强于Id-ScFv组(P<0.001)。结论:成功获取B-CLL患者瘤细胞膜表面Id-ScFv和人Hsp70两种纯化蛋白;Hsp70-Id在体外可增强PBMC的特异性杀瘤作用,其机制可能与促进PBMC的增殖、活化CD8 T细胞并诱导具有抗肿瘤作用的Th1型细胞因子的分泌有关。     

Anti-proliferative activity of heat shock protein (Hsp) 90 inhibitors via β-catenin/TCF7L2 pathway in adult T cell leukemia cells

The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90) inhibition, and to identify molecular pathways responsible for anti-proliferative effect on adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) cells. For Hsp90 inhibition, we used geldanamycin derivates, 17-AAG (17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin) and 17-DMAG (17-(dimethylaminoethylamino) 17-demethoxygeldanamycin) in this study. The inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) of 17-AAG in an ATL cell line, designated as TaY, and two HTLV-1 transformed cell lines (MT-2 and MT-4) was 300–700 nM, and that of 17-DMAG was 150–200 nM. Fresh ATL cells obtained from patients were more sensitive to both 17-AAG and 17-DMAG. Gene expression analysis of TaY cells revealed up-regulation of HSPA1A encoding Hsp70, a hallmark of Hsp90 inhibition. Genes regulating cell proliferation or anti-apoptosis (i.e. BCL2 and BIRC5), genes related to cytokines or chemokines (i.e. IL9 and CCL27), and notably TCF7L2, a down-stream effecter of β-catenin were remarkably down-regulated. Down-regulation of TCF7L2 mRNA was noted in the three cell lines and two patient specimens after Hsp90 inhibition. Hsp90 inhibitors dephosphorylate AKT, thereby, activate GSK-3β, which phosphorylates β-catenin for ubiquitination. This indicates the possibility that β-catenin/TCF7L2 pathway plays an important role in Hsp90 inhibitor-induced cell death in ATL cells and HTLV-1 transformed cells. Our results have provided new insights into the complex molecular pharmacology of Hsp90 inhibitors, and suggest that Hsp90 inhibitors might be beneficial as anti-proliferative agents in treating ATL patients.     

PRDM14 directly interacts with heat shock proteins HSP90α and glucose‐regulated protein 78

PRDM14 is overexpressed in various cancers and can regulate cancer phenotype under certain conditions. Inhibiting PRDM14 expression in breast and pancreatic cancers has been reported to reduce cancer stem‐like phenotypes, which are associated with aggressive tumor properties. Therefore, PRDM14 is considered a promising target for cancer therapy. To develop a pharmaceutical treatment, the mechanism and interacting partners of PRDM14 need to be clarified. Here, we identified the proteins interacting with PRDM14 in triple‐negative breast cancer (TNBC) cells, which do not express the three most common types of receptor (estrogen receptors, progesterone receptors, and HER2). We obtained 13 candidates that were pulled down with PRDM14 in TNBC HCC1937 cells and identified them by mass spectrometry. Two candidates—glucose‐regulated protein 78 (GRP78) and heat shock protein 90‐α (HSP90α)—were confirmed in immunoprecipitation assay in two TNBC cell lines (HCC1937 and MDA‐MB231). Surface plasmon resonance analysis using GST‐PRDM14 showed that these two proteins directly interacted with PRDM14 and that the interactions required the C‐terminal region of PRDM14, which includes zinc finger motifs. We also confirmed the interactions in living cells by NanoLuc luciferase‐based bioluminescence resonance energy transfer (NanoBRET) assay. Moreover, HSP90 inhibitors (17DMAG and HSP990) significantly decreased breast cancer stem‐like CD24⁻ CD44⁺ and side population (SP) cells in HCC1937 cells, but not in PRDM14 knockdown HCC1937 cells. The combination of the GRP78 inhibitor HA15 and PRDM14 knockdown significantly decreased cell proliferation and SP cell number in HCC1937 cells. These results suggest that HSP90α and GRP78 interact with PRDM14 and participate in cancer regulation.     

Y90‐Ibritumomab tiuxetan (Y90‐IT) and high‐dose melphalan as conditioning regimen before autologous stem cell transplantation for elderly patients with lymphoma in relapse or resistant to chemotherapy: a feasibility trial (SAKK 37/05)

Standard conditioning regimens for autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) are often not tolerated by elderly patients, on one hand. Single high‐dose melphalan, on the other hand, has been shown to be safe and active as a pretransplant preparative regimen in elderly patients. Y⁹⁰‐Ibritumomab tiuxetan (Y⁹⁰‐IT) is well tolerated and feasible in the transplantation setting. We therefore investigated the combination of high‐dose melphalan and Y⁹⁰‐IT as a conditioning regimen for patients ≥65 years of age. Patients with relapsed or resistant CD20‐positive lymphoma in remission after salvage chemotherapy could be enrolled. High‐dose therapy consisted of standard dose Y⁹⁰‐IT (0.4‐mCi/kg body weight) followed by melphalan at escalating doses (100, 140, 170 and 200 mg/m²) and ASCT. The primary objective was to identify the maximum tolerated dose; secondary end points were complete response (CR) rate 100 days after transplantation and toxicity. Twenty patients (median age 72 years) were included. No DLT occurred at any dose level. Thirteen patients completed the treatment, 11 were evaluable for response. Seven patients did not complete treatment because of mobilization failure (n = 3), progressive disease (n = 2), worsening of cardiac function (n = 1), and grade 3 dyspnea (n = 1). Seven patients achieved a CR/complete remission/unconfirmed (CRu) and 2 had stable disease. Five out of 7 responding patients were still alive more than 3 years after transplantation. The 2 patients with SD had a long‐term survival of 3 and 5 years, respectively. Nonhematological grade 3 or higher treatment related adverse events (AEs) were infection (n = 6), including 2 cases of febrile neutropenia, diarrhea (n = 3), mucositis, anorexia, viral hepatitis, hypokalemia, dehydration, and multiorgan failure (n = 1 for each). The combination of Y⁹⁰‐IT and high‐dose melphalan is feasible before ASCT for elderly patients, with promising activity and manageable toxicity.     

Stress-induced in vitro apoptosis of native human acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) cells shows a wide variation between patients and is associated with low BCL-2:Bax ratio and low levels of heat shock protein 70 and 90

Spontaneous in vitro apoptosis reflects a true biological heterogeneity between patients which has to be considered when in vitro models are used to study regulation of apoptosis in native human AML cells. Even though the balance between pro- and anti-apoptotic signaling seems to have a prognostic impact in AML, the possible clinical relevance of spontaneous apoptosis remains to be clarified. High apoptosis/low viability was associated with low levels of heat shock proteins 70 and 90 as well as low Bcl-2:Bax ratio for patients heterogeneous with regard to morphology, membrane molecule expression, genetic abnormalities and response to therapy.     

Purpurogallin is a novel mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 inhibitor that suppresses esophageal squamous cell carcinoma growth in vitro and in vivo

Purpurogallin is a natural compound that is extracted from nutgalls and oak bark and it possesses antioxidant, anticancer, and anti‐inflammatory properties. However, the anticancer capacity of purpurogallin and its molecular target have not been investigated in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC). Herein, we report that purpurogallin suppresses ESCC cell growth by directly targeting the mitogen‐activated protein kinase kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2) signaling pathway. We found that purpurogallin inhibits anchorage‐dependent and ‐independent ESCC growth. The results of in vitro kinase assays and cell‐based assays indicated that purpurogallin also strongly attenuates the extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) signaling pathway and also directly binds to and inhibits MEK1 and MEK2 activity. Furthermore, purpurogallin contributed to S and G2 phase cell cycle arrest by reducing cyclin A2 and cyclin B1 expression and also induced apoptosis by activating poly (ADP ribose) polymerase (PARP). Notably, purpurogallin suppressed patient‐derived ESCC tumor growth in an in vivo mouse model. These findings indicated that purpurogallin is a novel MEK1/2 inhibitor that could be useful for treating ESCC.     

Saracatinib (AZD0530) is a potent modulator of ABCB1‐mediated multidrug resistance in vitro and in vivo

Saracatinib, a highly selective, dual Src/Abl kinase inhibitor, is currently in a Phase II clinical trial for the treatment of ovarian cancer. In our study, we investigated the effect of saracatinib on the reversal of multidrug resistance (MDR) induced by ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) transporters in vitro and in vivo. Our results showed that saracatinib significantly enhanced the cytotoxicity of ABCB1 substrate drugs in ABCB1 overexpressing HeLa/v200, MCF‐7/adr and HEK293/ABCB1 cells, an effect that was stronger than that of gefitinib, whereas it had no effect on the cytotoxicity of the substrates in ABCC1 overexpressing HL‐60/adr cells and its parental sensitive cells. Additionally, saracatinib significantly increased the doxorubicin (Dox) and Rho 123 accumulation in HeLa/v200 and MCF‐7/adr cells, whereas it had no effect on HeLa and MCF‐7 cells. Furthermore, saracatinib stimulated the ATPase activity and inhibited photolabeling of ABCB1 with [¹²⁵I]‐iodoarylazidoprazosin in a concentration‐dependent manner. In addition, the homology modeling predicted the binding conformation of saracatinib within the large hydrophobic drug‐binding cavity of human ABCB1. However, neither the expression level of ABCB1 nor the phosphorylation level of Akt was altered at the reversal concentrations of saracatinib. Importantly, saracatinib significantly enhanced the effect of paclitaxel against ABCB1‐overexpressing HeLa/v200 cancer cell xenografts in nude mice. In conclusion, saracatinib reverses ABCB1‐mediated MDR in vitro and in vivo by directly inhibiting ABCB1 transport function, without altering ABCB1 expression or AKT phosphorylation. These findings may be helpful to attenuate the effect of MDR by combining saracatinib with other chemotherapeutic drugs in the clinic.