Electrical resistance of brain microvascular endothelium

A newly developed technique for determination of the electrical resistance of the capillary wall was applied to microvessels at the surface of the frog brain. Current was injected into a capillary or venule via a microelectrode and the ensuing intravascular potential profile away from the current source was determined with a second microelectrode placed at various positions along the capillary. The membrane resistance was calculated according to the theory for leaky cables used in determinations of axon membrane resistance. The average resistance was 1870 Ω·cm². Since the surface vessels of the frog brain are devoid of glial investment but otherwise similar to brain parenchymal vessels, the results prove that the endothelium is the site of the blood-brain barrier. The electrical resistance is similar to that of a ‘tight’ epithelium.     

Occludin expression in microvessels of neoplastic and non-neoplastic human brain

The tight junction protein occludin 'glues' normal, adjacent brain microvessel endothelial cells together. Malignant brain tumours cause cerebral oedema because they have leaky endothelial tight junctions, which allow plasma fluid to enter the brain from the microvessel lumen. In order to identify molecular abnormalities in tumour endothelial tight junctions, we investigated occludin expression in microvessels from adult human non-neoplastic brain tissue using immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. The proportions of microvessels immunolabelling for occludin were >2/3 in 5/5 non-neoplastic brain tissue samples, >1/3 in 5/5 low grade (Daumas-Duport I or II) astrocytomas and <1/3 in 5/5 high grade (III or IV) astrocytomas and 6/6 metastatic adenocarcinomas. Six non-neoplastic brain tissue immunoblots gave a 55-kDa occludin band, three low-grade astrocytomas gave 55-kDa and 60-kDa bands, 13 high-grade astrocytomas gave 60-kDa or no band and four adenocarcinomas did not give an occludin band. Expression of 55-kDa occludin inversely correlated with the presence of contrast enhancement on computed tomograms (P < 0.001). Electron microscopy showed open endothelial tight junctions in 0/2 non-neoplastic human brain specimens and 2/2 high-grade astrocytomas. We suggest that loss of 55-kDa occludin expression in human brain tumours may contribute to endothelial tight junction opening. Characterizing the molecular pathology of brain endothelial tight junctions may facilitate the design of novel drugs against cerebral oedema.     

Reactive microglia specifically associated with amyloid plaques in Alzheimer''s disease brain tissue express melanotransferrin

Several investigations have implicated the involvement of metals in neuropathologies. In particular, the disruption of iron metabolism and iron transport molecules have been demonstrated in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We have identified a novel pathway of iron uptake into mammalian cells involving melanotransferrin, or p97, which is independent of the transferrin receptor. Here we investigated whether there is a possible link between this molecule and the pathology of AD. The distributions of melanotransferrin, transferrin and the transferrin receptor were studied immunohistochemically in brain tissues from AD cases. In brain tissues from AD, melanotransferrin and the transferrin receptor were highly localized to capillary endothelium, while transferrin itself was mainly localized to glial cells. In brain tissue derived from AD patients, melanotransferrin was additionally detected in a subset of reactive microglia associated with senile plaques. Our demonstration that melanotransferrin mediates iron uptake through a pathway independent of the transferrin receptor indicates that this mechanism may have a role in AD.     

A monoclonal antibody to the endothelium of rat brain microvessels

A rat brain fraction enriched with microvessels was used as the immunogen to produce mouse hybridoma cell lines secreting monoclonal antibodies. One of these antibodies, selected from 156 supernatants by enzyme-linked immunosorbent and immunofluorescent assays, reacted only with the endothelium of microvessels in the brain. The endothelium-specific antibody labelled the cytoplasm of microvascular endothelial cells, their luminal membranes, and an extracellular layer, the endocapillary coat, which covered the luminal surface of these cells. In the kidney, the antibody specifically stained the brush border of the proximal tubuli, and in the liver, the antibody specifically stained bile canaliculi. This demonstrates that 3 morphological structures with important transport functions, cerebral microvascular endothelium, brush border of kidney proximal tubuli, and liver bile canaliculi, express the same epitope.     

hTfR报告基因慢病毒载体构建及其在神经干细胞的表达研究

目的 探讨人转铁蛋白受体(hTfR)基因慢病毒载体构建方法及其在神经干细胞(NSCs)中的表达情况,为NSCs的MR分子成像提供实验基础. 方法 利用聚合酶链反应技术(PCR)扩增hTfR基因,并克隆到pLenti6.3载体,构建出慢病毒表达载体pLentiI6.3-hTfR-IRES-EGFP.利用Lipofectin2000试剂将PLP1、PLP2、PLP-VSVG和pLenti6.3-hTfR-IRES-EGFP共转染293T细胞进行慢病毒包装,48 h后收集病毒上清,体外感染NSCs.细胞流式筛选稳定表达hTfR的细胞,通过实时定量PCR和Western boltting检测hTfR的表达,细胞免疫荧光技术对过表达的hTfR进行亚细胞的定位. 结果 成功构建hTfR基因慢病毒表达载体,包装的慢病毒颗粒成功感染NSCs.实时定量PCR和Western boltting鉴定出hTfR在NSCs中过表达,hTfR基因表达相对值为2.275±0.281.细胞免疫荧光检测到过表达的hTfR主要在细胞膜上表达.NSCs分化后,hTfR在胶质细胞和神经元中稳定表达. 结论 本研究所用方法能成功构建hTfR慢病毒表达载体并筛选出稳定表达hTfR的NSCs系,为下一步活体内移植NSCs行MR分子成像实验研究奠定了基础.     

Regional distribution of neuropeptide somatostatin gene expression in the human brain.

The regional distribution of mRNA coding for the neuropeptide somatostatin has been studied in the human brain by in situ hybridization histochemistry using 32P-labeled oligonucleotides. We show that somatostatin mRNA-containing neurons are widely distributed in a number of nuclei and grey areas of the human brain, including neocortex, putamen, nucleus caudatus, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, midbrain, medulla oblongata, hippocampal formation, reticular nucleus of the thalamus, and posterior nucleus of the hypothalamus. No significant hybridization signal was observed in the substantia nigra, claustrum, globus pallidus, thalamus, and cerebellum. The topographic localization of neurons containing SOM mRNA in the human brain is in agreement with previous studies using immunocytochemical or radioimmunoassay techniques. These results show that in situ hybridization histochemistry with oligonucleotide probes can be used to map the distribution of neurons expressing SOM mRNA in human postmortem materials.     

脑损伤后水通道蛋白4表达与血脑屏障通透性的关系

目的研究脑损伤后，水通道蛋白4（AQP4）的表达变化与血脑屏障（BBB）通透性之间的关系。方法健康成年Wistar大鼠，随机分成创伤性（TBI）组和假手术（SO）组。自由落体硬膜外撞击方法致重度脑创伤模型。于伤后4h、8h、12h、1d、3d、5d、7d取出大鼠脑组织，进行以下实验：①测创伤脑组织中伊文思蓝（EB）外渗的量，以EB外渗的量反应BBB通透性的变化；②免疫组化（IHC）和原位杂交（ISH）检测AQP4的表达变化。结果脑损伤后，BBB通透性增加，其增加有两个高峰，分别在TBI后12h和3d，后者尤为更明显。IHC和ISH显示，脑损伤后AQP4在脑组织中的表达逐渐上调，1d达高峰，持续至3d后下降，7d接近SO组水平。AQP4的表达变化与脑组织伊文思蓝（EB）含量的变化呈正相关（r=0．894，P〈0．05）。结论脑损伤后BBB通透性的增加与脑水肿的形成密切相关。TBI后BBB通透性增加，可能与AQP4表达上调有关，两者的变化影响TBI后脑水肿的发生、发展。     

Histochemical absence of gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase in chick brain capillary endothelium

It has been proposed that γ-glutamyl transpeptidase (GGTP) is involved in amino acid transport across the blood-brain barrier. A controversy exists, however, about whether or not sufficient GGTP activity is present in chick brain capillaries to be demonstrated histochemically. Under conditions in which GGTP was readily demonstrated in chick kidney, hamster kidney, and hamster brain capillaries, no GGTP activity was present in chick brain capillaries. Therefore, it is unlikely that GGTP activity is present in sufficient quantity in chick brain capillaries to account for all amino acid transport across the blood-brain barrier.     

On the distribution of cholecystokinin receptor binding sites in the human brain: an autoradiographic study

Cholecystokinin (CCK) binding sites were localized by in vitro autoradiography in human postmortem brain materials from 12 patients without reported neurological diseases using [125I]Bolton-Hunter CCK octapeptide (BHCCK-8) as a ligand. The pharmacological characteristics of BHCCK-8 binding to mounted tissue sections were comparable to those previously reported in the rat. CCK-8 being the most potent displacer, followed by caerulein, CCK-4, and gastrin I. The distribution of BHCCK-8 binding sites was heterogeneous. These sites were highly concentrated in a limited number of gray matter areas and nuclei. The highest binding densities were seen in the glomerular and external plexiform layers of the olfactory bulb. BHCCK-8 binding sites were also enriched in the neocortex, where they presented a laminar distribution with low levels in lamina I, moderate concentration in laminae II to IV, high density in lamina V, and low levels in lamina VI. A different laminar distribution was seen in the visual cortex, where a low receptor density was observed in lamina IV but higher density in laminae II and VI. In the basal ganglia the nucleus accumbens, caudatus, and the putamen presented moderate to high densities of binding sites, while the globus pallidus lacked sites of BHCCK-8 binding. In the limbic system the only area presenting moderate to high density was the amygdaloid complex, particularly in the granular nucleus, while most of the thalamic nuclei were extremely poor or lacked BHCCK-8 binding. The hippocampal formation showed low (CA1-3) to moderate (subiculum) densities. Midbrain areas generally disclosed very low levels of BHCCK-8 binding sites. The pontine gray and the nucleus reticularis tegmenti pontis showed a relatively high density of CCK-8 receptor specific binding. Moderate to very high densities were found in few nuclei of the lower brainstem and spinal cord as the inferior olives and their accessory nuclei, the arcuate nuclei, the striae medullares, the efferent (motor) nucleus of the vagus, and the substantia gelatinosa of the cervical and thoracic spinal cord. These results are discussed in relation to the distribution of endogenous peptide and to the known physiological and pharmacological effects of substances acting on these receptors.     

Differential distribution of an endothelial barrier antigen between the pial and cortical microvessels of the rat

An endothelial barrier antigen (EBA), reported to be a marker for endothelial cells (EC) displaying blood–brain barrier (BBB) characteristics, was probed with a monoclonal antibody in pial and cortical microvessels in rat brain. In contrast to the uniform labelling of EC in cortical vessels, pial microvessels showed a heterogeneity in EBA expression. Most pial vessels consisted of a mixture of EBA positive and EBA negative cells whereas a smaller number of vessels were either completely negative or uniformly positive. Significantly, in vessels showing incomplete expression it was typically EC furthest from the brain surface that did not express EBA. Although the function of EBA is unknown, the variable expression in pial microvascular EC may be related to their incomplete barrier characteristics.     

A qualitative comparison of the glucocorticoid receptor in cytosol from human brain and rat brain

The glucocorticoid receptor in cytosol from human brain was studied using isoelectric focussing in slabs of polyacrylamide gel. [³H]Dexamethasone was used as tracer for receptor analysis. The glucocorticoid receptor from human brain was compared to the glucocorticoid receptor in rat brain. A similar peak of radioactivity with a pI of about 6.1 was obtained by isoelectric focussing of cytosol from both human brain and rat brain.The trypsin-induced fragmentation patterns of the glucocorticoid receptor from human brain and rat brain were very similar when analyzed by isoelectric focussing.The hormone specificity of the glucocorticoid receptor in human brain and in rat brain cytosol was compared by competition experiments using unlabelled dexamethasone, betamethasone, cortisol and corticosterone as competitors. No difference between human brain and rat brain cytosol was detected.It is concluded that the hormone specificity and the protein structure of the glucocorticoid receptors in human brain and in rat brain are similar.     

Regional and age-dependent expression of the nitric oxide receptor, soluble guanylyl cyclase, in the human brain

Nitric oxide (NO), synthesized by neuronal NO synthase (NOS-I), plays essential physiological roles in the brain. The major molecular target for NO is soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC), a heterodimeric hemoprotein composed of a larger alpha and a smaller beta subunit. Both subunits of sGC are needed to generate the second messenger cyclic GMP (cGMP). Here we show using subunit-specific antibodies and Western blot analysis that sGCalpha1 and sGCbeta1 protein subunits are present in all examined human brain regions. The relative distribution of the two subunits was similar and also correlated well with the known distribution of NOS-I. The highest expression levels of sGC were found in cortex, basal ganglia and the limbic system. These regions display the most prominent biochemical and histological changes during ageing. In cortex, a negative correlation between the amounts of sGC and age was found, while sex and post-mortem delay time did not affect sGC levels significantly. Our data suggest that sGCalpha1 and sGCbeta1 subunits are widely distributed in human brain, consistent with a major role in NO signaling. Moreover, the NO/cGMP pathway appears to be affected by ageing in the human brain.     

高血糖对缺血再灌注大鼠脑组织中MMP-9及对血脑屏障的影响

目的 探讨高血糖对脑缺血后脑组织中MMP-9表达的影响,从而研究高血糖加重脑损伤的机制.方法 采用链脲佐菌素腹腔注射复制高血糖模型;线栓法制作大脑中动脉栓塞模型;应用免疫组化技术观察MMP-9蛋白表达,并测血脑屏障的通透性.结果 高血糖组缺血再灌注24h、48h的MMP-9 表达明显增加,其阳性细胞数与血糖正常组对比有明显差异,且血脑屏障通透性比正常对照组明显增加.结论 高血糖可诱导脑缺血再灌注后脑组织内的MMP-9 表达,增加血脑屏障的通透性,从而加重脑组织的损伤.     

Regional distribution of glutamate and aspartate in adult and old human brain

In previous studies on rat brain we found that the observed heterogeneity of the regional distribution of amino acids was much greater when small well-defined anatomical structures were assayed. We therefore reinvestigated the distribution of glutamate and aspartate in 50 discrete areas from adult and old human brain. The concentration of glutamate in the area of highest level was 4.5 and 4.7 times as high as in the area of lowest level in adult and old brain respectively; for aspartate these values were 3.0 and 6.6. Several changes in old brain were noted. The human pattern differed from that in rat.     

Characterization of prolactin receptor in human brain and choroid plexus

We have studied the binding of¹²⁵I-labeled human prolactin (PRL) to membranes from various regions of the human brain (hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, cerebellum and choroid plexus) derived from autopsy specimens. Among the various regions studied, the choroid plexus of both male and female subjects showed the highest specific binding and a clearly detectable specific binding was also observed in the hypothalamus of both sexes, whereas it was very low in other brain regions. No significant sex differences in PRL binding to various brain regions were observed except for the hypothalamus where a higher binding was seen in female subjects. The binding did not vary with the age of the subjects. Moreover, the cause of death and the time elapsed from death to autopsy in this study did not affect the binding significantly. The binding of¹²⁵I-labeled human PRL to hypothalamus and choroid plexus membranes from female specimens was inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by both unlabeled human and ovine PRL and by human growth hormone (GH), but not by other polypeptide hormones. Scatchard analysis of the binding revealed the presence of saturable binding sites with low capacity and high affinity for human PRL ligand. These results provide strong preliminary evidence for the presence of PRL binding sites in the human brain.     

Influx of a choline analog to dog brain measured by positron emission tomography

The influx of the 11C-labeled choline analog pyrrolidinocholine into tissue was measured in the brain of three dogs by positron emission tomography (PET). During the first 90 s after the intravenous bolus injection of the tracer, transfer of tracer from plasma to tissue was unidirectional. The influx constant for pyrrolidinocholine into intracranial tissue, Kin, was 0.017 ml/g/min (0.008 SD), and the initial volume of distribution, V0, was 0.08 ml/g (0.03 SD). The influx constant was at least five times larger than the value expected if simple diffusion were to account for tissue uptake. The method presented in this paper can be used to investigate the availability of plasma choline and its analogs to the living human brain and other tissue in degenerative diseases affecting the cholinergic system, and to provide in vivo information on a choline transport system.     

Characterization and distribution of [3H]ohmefentanyl binding sites in the human brain

Binding properties and localization of [3H]ohmefentanyl, a new ligand for mu opioid receptors, were investigated on normal human brain sections. Binding assays performed at the level of the basal ganglia revealed: (1) a steady-state binding reached after 60 min incubation at room temperature, (2) the presence, in saturation experiments, of an apparent single class of binding sites with a Kd = 1.68 +/- 0.45 nM and a Bmax = 162 +/- 9 fmol/mg protein, (3) an order of potency to inhibit [3H]ohmefentanyl binding as follows: ohmefentanyl greater than [D-Ala2, MePhe4, Gly-ol5] enkephalin (DAGO) greater than ethylketocyclazocine (EKC) much greater than Tyr-D-Ser(OtBu)-Gly-Phe-Leu-Thr(OtBu) (BUBU) and U-50,488H. Quantitative autoradiography showed an heterogeneous distribution of [3H]ohmefentanyl binding sites with the highest densities in amygdala, medical geniculate body, thalamus, and caudate nucleus. Binding characteristics and anatomical distribution also show that [3H]ohmefentanyl may bind to a small proportion of additional sites called "DAGO-inaccessible [3H]ohmefentanyl specific binding sites." [3H]Ohmefentanyl binding to these sites can be partly inhibited by sigma ligands such as 1,3-di-o-tolylguanidine (DTG) and haloperidol. However, unlabeled DAGO inhibited more than 80% of [3H]ohmefentanyl specific binding in most of the human brain regions studied, suggesting that the major population of sites labeled by [3H]ohmefentanyl represented mu opioid receptors.     

小儿颅内肿瘤P-糖蛋白表达的定位检测及临床意义

目的 为了探讨小儿颅内肿瘤化疗失败的原因,本实验对２０例小儿颅内肿瘤Ｐ－糖蛋白的表达情况进行研究。方法 用单克隆抗体ＪＳＢ１及免疫组化法检测Ｐ－糖蛋白。结果 小儿颅内肿瘤Ｐ－糖蛋白表达很低,２０例中８例表达于血管内皮细胞,７例表达于纤维细胞,５例表达于浸润的淋巴细胞,肿瘤细胞只１例表达。结论 ８小儿颅内肿瘤化疗失败的原因是患儿血脑屏障Ｐ－糖蛋白表达,表现为对抗癌药物较强耐受而非肿瘤细胞表达Ｐ－糖蛋