Risk factors for encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis in patients who have experienced peritoneal dialysis treatment

Background The present study was conducted to clarify the clinical risk factors related to the development of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis (EPS), which is one of the most serious complications in patients undergoing peritoneal dialysis (PD).Methods The records of 78 patients with a history of PD treatment, including 18 with EPS, were retrospectively analyzed (male/female, 51:27; age, 51.8 ± 11.0 years; PD treatment, 94.1 ± 42.7 months). The inclusion criteria were: duration of PD more than 24 months; 36-month follow up after discontinuation of PD; available data for dialysate-to-plasma creatinine ratio (D/P Cr), by fast peritoneal equilibration test within 3 months before PD discontinuation; and absence of EPS at PD discontinuation. Analytical parameters included age, sex, underlying renal disease, duration of PD, membrane transport state (higher transporter or lower transporter: D/P cr ratio more than or less than 0.75), number of episodes of peritonitis during PD treatment, performance of peritoneal lavage after PD discontinuation, and reasons for PD withdrawal (ultrafiltration failure, acute peritonitis, social matters).Results Significant differences were noted regarding the PD duration, D/P cr, higher membrane transport state, and number of peritonitis episodes during PD. On receiver operating characteristic curves, the cutoff points for EPS were: D/P cr ratio, 0.74; number of peritonitis episodes, 2; and PD duration (months), 115.2. Multivariate analysis, employing the factors age, PD duration, higher membrane transport state, and number of peritonitis episodes, which were selected by stepwise analysis, identified the latter two factors as significant for the development of EPS (odds ratio [OR], 4.0; P = 0.046 and OR, 12.0; P = 0.049, respectively).Conclusions A higher transporter membrane state and the number of peritonitis episodes are factors contributing to the occurrence of EPS in patients who have experienced PD treatment.     

La péritonite sclérosante et encapsulante

Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis is a rare but devastating complication of long-term peritoneal dialysis with a high mortality rate. The incidence is between 0.5 and 2.5%, decreasing with time. PSE is defined as a clinical syndrome with signs of gastrointestinal obstruction, inflammation parameters, radiological and macroscopic changes. The duration of treatment and the cessation of peritoneal dialysis are the main risks. About 75% occured in patients on hemodialysis or after kidney transplantation. Morphological alterations are disappearance of mesothelial layer, submesothelial fibrosis, interstitial sclerosis and vasculopathy. Ultrafiltration failure, fast transport status of the peritoneal membrane and loss of sodium sieving, the most powerful predictor, are the functional abnormalities. Biomarkers in peritoneal effluent include cancer antigen 125, interleukin-6. The pathophysiology is probably a consequence of a multiple-hit process in which expression of growth factors and cytokines play a central role. Medical strategies (corticosteroids, tamoxifen) in association with parenteral nutrition and/or surgery (enterolysis) are discussed. Prevention is the use of physiological peritoneal dialysis solutions, icodextrine instead of high glucose concentration solutions and peritoneal lavage after peritoneal dialysis stopping.     

Risks of peritoneal membrane failure in children undergoing long-term peritoneal dialysis

Children undergoing long-term peritoneal dialysis are at risk for membrane injury, necessitating conversion to hemodialysis. We analyzed the incidence and risk factors for membrane failure (inadequate ultrafiltration with or without peritoneal adhesions and decreased peritoneal surface area) in 68 children maintained with peritoneal dialysis for more than 3 months at our institution. The overall incidence of membrane failure was 16.2% (11/68). Kaplan-Meier estimates of peritoneal membrane survival were 88% at 24 months, 72% at 36 months, 65% at 48 months, and 52% at 60 months. Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that the risk of membrane failure increased with the number of episodes of peritonitis (odds ratio 1.61). The rate of peritonitis was 1 per 7.02 patient months in children who developed membrane failure compared with 1 per 9.18 patient months in children without membrane failures but the rate of peritonitis was not predictive of membrane failure (P=0.09). Multiple logistic regression analysis demonstrated that peritonitis caused byPseudomonas aeruginosa or alpha streptococcal organisms were independent predictors of membrane failure. We conclude that peritoneal membrane survival declines substantially with time on peritoneal dialysis and that membrane failure is associated with peritonitis, particularly peritonitis caused byPseudomonas aeruginosa and alpha streptococcal organisms. The mechanism(s) of membrane injury are unknown but may be related to the inflammatory response initiated during peritonitis.     

Impacts of baseline peritoneal transport characteristics and their changes during follow up on the survival of peritoneal dialysis patients

Objective To evaluate the effects of baseline and changes of peritoneal transport characteristics on the prognosis of maintaining peritoneal dialysis (PD) patients. Methods Five hundred and eight-six PD patients who started PD from September 11, 2006 to October 30, 2014 in a single center were included and followed up until March 30, 2016. According to their baseline D/Pcr value in peritoneal equilibrium test (PET), the patients were divided into high transport (H) group (D/Pcr 0.82-1.03), high average transport (HA) group (D/Pcr 0.65-0.81), low average transport (LA) group (D/Pcr 0.50-0.64) and low transport (L) group (D/Pcr 0.34-0.49). According to the changes of follow-up D/Pcr comparing with baseline D/Pcr, the patients were also divided into ascending group, descending group and no-change group. The patient and technical survival rates were estimated by Kaplan-Meier analysis. Cox proportional hazards analyses were used to analyze the risk factors for PD patient death and technical failure. Results There were 67 patients in L group, 229 patients in LA group, 252 patients in HA group, and 38 patients in H group. The patient survival rate in H group was significantly lower than those of L group (P=0.036), LA group (P=0.008) and HA group (P=0.041). There was no significant difference on technical survival rate among these 4 groups. According to the tendency of follow-up D/Pcr changes, there were 127 patients in ascending group, 101 patients in descending group and 179 patients in no-change group. There was no significant difference on patient survival among these 3 groups (P=0.064). However in patients with a high transport rate (D/Pcr≥0.65), the patient survival was lower in descending group than those in ascending group (P=0.033) and no-change group (P=0.049). Age over 65 years old (HR=2.499), malnutrition during follow-up (HR=3.144), ultrafiltration less than 400 ml/d during follow-up (HR=1.863) and high sensitive C reactive protein≥10 mg/L (HR=4.526) were the independent risk factors for patient death (all P＜0.05). Gender (HR= 1.609), age over 65 years old (HR=1.929), ultrafiltration less than 400 ml/d during follow-up (HR=1.708), high sensitive C reactive protein≥10 mg/L (HR=1.829), malnutrition (HR=1.876) and change of peritoneal transport function (HR=0.579) affect technical failure (all P＜0.05). Conclusions The survival rate of PD patients with basal high peritoneal transit is relatively low, especially for patients with descending transport rate during follow-up. The concern on the peritoneal transport status is constructive for the prognosis of PD patients.     

Restoration of peritoneal integrity after withdrawal of peritoneal dialysis: characteristic features of the patients at risk of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis

Background The epidemiological characteristics of encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis (EPS), such as its high incidence in patients with long-term peritoneal dialysis (PD) treatment, and the onset of EPS after patients are switched to hemodialysis (HD) may indicate an activated pathological process after PD withdrawal, especially in long-term PD patients. Accordingly, we aimed to observe changes in peritoneal function after the stoppage of PD, and to clarify the characteristic features of the patients at risk of EPS. Methods Thirty-three patients who were switched from continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) to HD were enrolled in this trial. Changes in the dialysate/plasma creatinine (D/P Cr) and CA125 levels in the effluent of the peritoneal equilibration test were observed for 6 months. Furthermore, each patient was followed-up for 36 months after PD withdrawal to monitor for the development of EPS. Results D/P Cr decreased significantly, while CA125 levels tended to increase. Nine patients developed EPS during the follow-up period and they specifically showed significant increases of D/P Cr levels and significantly lower levels of CA125 at PD withdrawal. The accumulation of high transporters in the EPS group at 0 and 6 months after PD withdrawal was significant. Conclusions Peritoneal recovery may take place after withdrawal from PD treatment and such recover indicated by improvement of transport states and a rise of the CA125 level. The present study revealed that a high-transport state and lack of increase of CA125 in the effluent were associated with EPS development after PD withdrawal. This may suggest that the lack of peritoneal recovery after PD withdrawal is predictive for EPS development.     

水孔蛋白1在人腹膜组织的表达及腹膜透析对其表达的影响

目的 观察水孔蛋白1（aquaporin-1,AQP1)在人腹膜组织的表达以及腹膜透析（腹透）对其表达的影响。以期探讨长期腹透后腹膜超滤功能下降的可能机制。方法 采用Western blot，免疫组织化学（组化）以及RT-PCR等技术观察正常对照者，尿毒症非透析患者以及腹透患者的腹膜活检标本AQP1在蛋白质和基因水平表达。结果 各组腹膜均有AQP1表达。除了毛细血管和小静脉内皮细胞外，腹膜间皮细胞也表达AQP1。半定量分析表明各组AQP1蛋白和mRAN的表达量差异均没有显著性意义。结论 本研究支持AQP1是腹膜转运超小孔的分子结构。研究结果提示腹膜间皮细胞可能也参与了腹膜跨细胞的水转运。腹透对腹膜AQP1的表达量没有明显影响。因此进一步深入研究AQP1结构或分布的改变，以及与超滤衰竭的关系可能对探讨腹膜超滤衰竭的发生机制具有一定意义。     

改良腹膜平衡试验在腹膜透析患者中的应用

目的 观察改良腹膜平衡试验(改良PET)在腹膜透析(腹透)患者中的应用,初 步建立改良PET转运参数的参考值,探讨其评估腹膜溶质转运特性的准确性及临床意义。方法 97例腹透患者用高渗腹透液(4．25％葡萄糖)进行改良PET,分别测定4 h透析液肌酐与血肌酐 比值(4h D／Pcr)、计算物质转运面积系数(MTAC)、1 h透析液钠与血钠比值(1h D／PNa+)及记录 净超率量(nUF)。其中有14例患者在1个月内曾行标准腹膜平衡试验(标准PET),其结果与改 良PET进行自身比较。所有患者在研究时及研究前1个月内均无腹膜炎。结果 97例腹透患 者中有90例nUF大于400 ml,这些患者的转运参数经正态分布校正后建立了改良PET的参考 值。改良PET的4 hD／Pcr为0．70±0．15,标准PET4 hD／Pcr为0．68±0．13,两者非常接近,差异 无统计学意义。两种PET对患者腹膜转运特性分型结果相似。7例nUF小于400 ml的患者中有 5例有效腹膜表面积增大;2例存在水通道介导的水转运障碍,其中1例同时存在有效腹膜表面 积增大,还有1例患者改良PET转运参数在正常范围内。结论 与标准PET相比,用高渗腹透 液进行改良PET能够准确地评估腹膜小分子溶质转运特性,此外还能提供更多更敏感的液体转 运信息,为临床诊断超滤衰竭,以及进一步鉴别其原因提供了有力的手段。     

可溶性酪氨酸激酶2融合蛋白对尿毒症腹膜透析大鼠腹膜形态和功能的影响

目的 研究可溶性酪氨酸激酶2融合蛋白（sTie-2-Fc）对尿毒症腹膜透析大鼠腹膜血管新生、溶质转运和超滤功能的影响。 方法 32只雄性Wistar大鼠按数字随机法分为假手术组、尿毒症组、尿毒症腹透组和sTie-2-Fc干预组（均n=8）。尿毒症腹透组和sTie-2-Fc干预组大鼠经腹透管每天2次腹腔灌注4.25%葡萄糖透析液（3 ml/100 g体质量）共4周,sTie-2-Fc干预组大鼠每次灌注时在透析液中加入1 μg sTie-2-Fc。各组大鼠处死前行腹膜平衡试验,检测腹膜转运和超滤功能,取大网膜标本行抗CD31免疫组化染色并计血管数。 结果 与假手术组大鼠相比,尿毒症组大鼠的2 h腹透液和血肌酐比值（D/Pcr）增高（0.78±0.05比0.70±0.09,P = 0.028）,腹透液2 h与0 h葡萄糖比值（D/D0）降低（0.69±0.05比0.76±0.07,P = 0.033）,腹膜超滤量（UF,ml）减少（2.29±0.50比4.58±1.64,P = 0.005）,腹膜血管数量增加[（5.8±3.0）/HP比（1.6±0.5）/HP,P < 0.01]。尿毒症腹透组大鼠的溶质转运较尿毒症组大鼠进一步增高（D/Pcr: 0.89±0.05比0.78±0.05,P < 0.01;D/D0:0.47±0.09 比0.69±0.05, P < 0.01）,UF（ml）减少（0.40±0.59比2.29±0.50,P = 0.005）,腹膜血管数量增多[（16.7±1.2）/HP比（5.8±3.0）/HP,P < 0.01]。干预组大鼠使用sTie-2-Fc后,UF（ml）较尿毒症腹透组大鼠显著增加（1.56±0.48比0.40±0.59,P = 0.014）,腹膜血管数量显著减少[（9.2±1.2）/HP比（16.7±1.2）/HP,P ＜ 0.01],但两组大鼠的D/Pcr和D/D0差异均无统计学意义。 结论 sTie-2-Fc使尿毒症腹透大鼠腹膜血管新生减少,超滤增加,有利于保护腹膜结构和功能,可能是防治腹透后腹膜结构和功能改变的另一靶点。     

腹膜透析对人腹膜形态结构的影响

目的 探讨腹膜透析（腹透）对人腹膜，重点在间皮层形态结构的影响及其意义。方法 采用光镜，扫描电镜和透射电镜对10例正常对照者，12例尿毒症非透析患者以及10例腹透患者的腹膜活检标本进行形态学观察。结果 尿毒症非透析患者腹膜的结构与正常对照者相似，而腹透患者的腹膜形态结构随着透析时间而呈进行性改变。主要表现为间质细胞表面微绒毛减少，消失，间皮细胞从基底膜脱落直至完全消失，最后只剩下裸露的纤维结缔组织。结论 腹膜透析可引起腹膜的形态学明显改变，这可能是长期腹膜透析引起腹膜衰竭的原因之一。进一步深入研究腹膜结构与功能间关系能为人们了解长期腹透对腹膜影响的病理生理机制并进而寻找保护腹膜的手段提供理论依据。     

Peritoneal thickening is not inevitable in long-term peritoneal dialysis and is associated with peritoneal transport characteristics: a two-centre sonographic study.

BACKGROUND: The peritoneum is subject to alterations in the life-long course of peritoneal dialysis (PD). Studies of the parietal peritoneum by non-invasive ultrasonography in PD patients are limited. We hypothesize that a prolonged PD duration is associated with a thicker peritoneum on ultrasonography and alterations in Doppler indexes of mesenteric vessels. METHODS: We recruited two groups of patients, 18 who had >7 years of PD and 18 who had <12 months of PD. We excluded patients with active peritonitis, history of major abdominal surgery, cirrhosis or malignancy. We measured the sonographic thickness of the parietal peritoneum and Doppler indexes of mesenteric vessels by trans-abdominal ultrasonography at two PD units in Taiwan. RESULTS: We found no significant difference between two groups of PD patients in peritoneal thickness and in Doppler indexes. However, our univariate and multivariate analysis indicated that peritoneal thickness is associated with peritoneal transport characteristics (dialysate/plasma creatinine) but not with age, duration of dialysis, body height, body weight or Doppler index. The peritoneum is significantly thicker in rapid transporters than in slow transporters (RUQ: 0.59 +/- 0.40 mm versus 0.27 +/- 0.29 mm, P = 0.01; LUQ: 0.60 +/- 0.40 mm versus 0.27 +/- 0.32 mm, P = 0.016; LQ: 1.07 +/- 0.85 mm versus 0.48 +/- 0.53 mm, P = 0.026). In addition, rapid transporters have a marginally lower Doppler resistive index of the superior mesenteric artery (0.87 +/- 0.08 versus 0.90 +/- 0.10, P = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: Our data showed that peritoneal thickening is not inevitable in long-term PD patients. Sonographic thickness in the parietal peritoneum is associated with transport characteristics. Rapid transporters have a significantly thicker peritoneum. The Doppler index of mesenteric vessels had no association with PD duration or transport characteristics. Trans-abdominal ultrasonography is non-invasive and useful in evaluating peritoneal characteristics of PD patients.     

Multidirectional approach to study peritoneal dialysis fluid biocompatibility in a chronic peritoneal dialysis model in the rat.

BACKGROUND: Peritoneal dialysis causes the functional and morphological changes in the peritoneum that result from the bioincompatibility of dialysis solutions. We present a model of chronic peritoneal dialysis in the rat that can be used for testing the biocompatibility of dialysis fluids. Methods and Results. Long-term exposure of the peritoneum to dialysis solutions can be performed in rats with implanted peritoneal catheters. Sampling of the dialysate allows the evaluation of intraperitoneal inflammation by examining cell differential and dialysate cytokine levels. Peritoneal permeability can be evaluated at designed time intervals with the peritoneal equilibration test (PET). At the end of dialysis, peritoneal histology is studied with light and electron microscopy. CONCLUSIONS: Such a multidirectional approach is an effective way to test biocompatibility of dialysis solutions.     

Longitudinal changes of solute transport in peritonitis-free peritoneal dialysis patients

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the longitudinal changes in peritoneal transport in patients on long-term, peritonitis-free, continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis (CAPD) therapy. METHODS: Results were longitudinally recorded for the standard peritoneal equilibration test (PET) in 76 consecutive, nondiabetic, adult patients from the beginning of CAPD therapy until their first episodes of peritonitis, abdominal surgery, or any cause of drop out. The PET results were evaluated once annually using the dialysate-to-plasma ratio of creati-nine (D/PCr) and the dialysate-to-instilled dextrose ratio (D4/D0) at 4 hours after beginning dialysis. RESULTS: A total of 168 PET results were obtained. A statistically significant tendency toward decreased D/PCr and increased D4/D0 values over time for up to 3 years was found. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows a tendency toward progressive decline in small molecular transport over time in nondiabetic patients with uneventful CAPD therapy. Sequential PET follow-up cannot be overlooked in peritonitis-free CAPD patients.     

Ultrafiltration capacity and peritoneal fluid kinetics in continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients

Abstract:  Volume control is critical for peritoneal dialysis. Although peritoneal equilibration test (PET) has been used to clarify the peritoneal membrane characteristics, it is not able to adequately predict peritoneal fluid removal and optimize appropriately the dwell time. In the present study, we applied computer simulation and performed a more detailed evaluation of the fluid kinetics in patients with different ultrafiltration (UF) capacity. Patients who used three to four exchanges of 2.27% glucose dialysate per day (poor UF capacity group), and patients who used three to four exchanges of 1.36% glucose dialysate per day (good UF capacity group) to achieve adequate amount of peritoneal fluid removal were included in the present analysis. All included patients were asked to record appropriately their dialysis exchanges for the assessment of their peritoneal fluid transport characteristics. Seventeen continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients were selected in the present study, nine in poor UF capacity group and eight in good UF capacity group. Patients in poor UF capacity group had significantly higher daily glucose exposure, higher dialysate-to-plasma ratio of creatinine (D/P creatinine) values, and higher peritoneal fluid absorption rate, K _e, as compared to patients with good UF capacity. Our results suggest that patients with poor UF capacity have significant higher peritoneal small solute transport rate, and more importantly, higher peritoneal fluid absorption rate as compared to patients with good UF capacity.     

腹膜溶质转运特性与蛋白质和氨基酸经透析液丢失

目的　探讨腹膜透析（ＰＤ）时腹膜溶质转运特性与蛋白质和氨基酸经ＰＤ液丢失的关系。方法　比较了２５ 名腹膜溶质转运特性为高转运或低转运的ＰＤ 患者每日经ＰＤ 液丢失总蛋白质、白蛋白和２１ 种氨基酸量的差别。结果　高转运组患者每日经透析液丢失的总蛋白、白蛋白和总氨基酸量均明显高于低转运组［分别为（６－９±２－４０） 比（４－９６±１－５０）ｇ／２４ｈ、（４－９±２－０） 比（３－２±１－４）ｇ／２４ ｈ 和（１５－２４±３－７０）比（９－８９±３－７０）ｍｍｏｌ／２４ ｈ,Ｐ值均＜０－０５］;高转运组患者血浆白蛋白水平明显低于低转运组（３４－９±１－０）比（３８－８±１－９）ｇ／Ｌ,两组有显著性差异（ Ｐ＜０－０５）。根据腹膜平衡试验确定的Ｄ／Ｐ４Ｃｒ 值与透析液中白蛋白和总氨基酸的丢失量呈显著正相关,与血浆白蛋白水平呈显著负相关。结论　高转运ＰＤ患者较低转运者丢失更大量的蛋白质和氨基酸,导致血浆白蛋白水平下降,营养不良。应高度重视慢性ＰＤ的高转运患者的营养管理问题。     

Pathogenesis and treatment of peritoneal membrane failure

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is a viable treatment option for end stage renal disease (ESRD) patients worldwide. PD may provide a survival advantages over hemodialysis (HD) in the early years of treatment. However, the benefits of PD are short-lived, as peritoneal membrane failure ensues in many patients, owing mainly to structural and functional changes in the peritoneal membrane from the use of conventional bio-incompatible PD solutions, which are hyperosmolar, acidic, have lactate buffer and contain high concentrations of glucose and glucose degradation products (GDPs). Current data suggest that chronic exposure of the peritoneum to contemporary PD fluids provokes activation of various inflammatory, fibrogenic and angiogenic cytokines, interplay of which leads to progressive peritoneal fibrosis, vasculopathy and neoangiogenesis. There is emerging evidence that peritoneal vascular changes are mainly responsible for increased solute transport and ultrafiltration failure in long-term PD. However, the precise pathophysiologic mechanisms initiating and propagating peritoneal fibrosis and angiogenesis remain elusive. The protection of the peritoneal membrane from long-term toxic and metabolic effects of high GDP-containing, conventional, glucose-based solutions is a prime objective to improve PD outcome. Recent development of new, more biocompatible, PD solutions should help to preserve peritoneal membrane function, promote ultrafiltration, improve nutritional status and, hopefully, preserve peritoneal membrane and improve overall PD outcomes. Elucidation of molecular mechanisms involved in the cellular responses leading to peritoneal fibrosis and angiogenesis spurs new therapeutic strategies that might protect the peritoneal membrane against the consequences of longstanding PD.     

Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis in paediatric peritoneal dialysis patients

Encapsulating peritoneal sclerosis (EPS) is a serious complication of chronic peritoneal dialysis (CPD). In contrast to the adult population, there are few studies regarding EPS in paediatric CPD patients, and the majority of reported patients are from Japan. The aim of the present report is to define the incidence of EPS in our paediatric CPD patients and to describe the clinical and laboratory characteristics. A total of 104 paediatric patients were followed from November 1989 to November 2003 and two were diagnosed as EPS (1.9%). The dialysis periods of these patients were 45 and 53 months with 6 and 8 peritonitis episodes, respectively. Clinical signs of EPS developed 7 and 14 days after the removal of the dialysis catheter, and CPD was replaced by haemodialysis because of persistent peritonitis. One patient was well after surgical management but died 6 months later. The second patient who was treated with prednisolone remained well at 16 months. In conclusion, EPS is a rare but important complication of CPD. We recommend that all patients on CPD who develop ultrafiltration failure be evaluated radiologically for the occurrence of EPS. Management should be tailored to the individual patient.     

Longitudinal changes in peritoneal equilibration test with or without peritonitis in children

This study was conducted to evaluate longitudinal changes in the peritoneal equilibration test (PET) in children treated with continuous peritoneal dialysis (CPD). The effects of prolonged CPD and episodes of peritonitis on the PET were examined. PET was repeated up to five times in 12 paediatric patients who were subdivided into groups with and without peritonitis. In the peritonitis group (n=6), the dialysate/plasma (D/P) creatinine ratio at a 4-h dwell time decreased progressively with time on CPD in five of six patients. In a comparison of the initial and final PETs performed at a mean interval of 22.8±11.6 months, the D/P creatinine ratio in the final PET was significantly lower than in the initial PET (P<0.01). In contrast, in the non-peritonitis group (n=6), the D/P creatinine ratio in the final PET was unchanged for 28.2±12.3 months from the initial PET. The D/Do glucose ratio at a 4-h dwell time was unchanged over time in each group. Thus, repeated PET measurements revealed that membrane permeability for creatinine was not affected by prolonged CPD itself, but decreased with time after episodes of peritonitis. Although the protocol for PET is not standardised in children, PET was useful for determining the sequential changes in peritoneal function in such patients on CPD.     

Vitamin status of infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis

The oral vitamin intakes and blood vitamin concentrations of seven infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis were measured. The serum concentrations of vitamin A, vitamin B₁₂, vitamin C and folic acid were determined. Thiamine and riboflavin were assessed by the activation of erythrocyte transketolase and erythrocyte glutathione reductase, respectively. Vitamin B₆ was measured as plasma pyridoxal phosphate. All patients received a daily vitamin supplement devoid of vitamin A. Dietary vitamin intake was derived from infant formula. In all cases, the patients' blood concentrations of the water-soluble vitamins were equal to or greater than normal infant values. Serum vitamin A levels were elevated despite the lack of supplementation. The combined dietary/supplemental water-soluble vitamin intake of the patients exceeded the recommended daily allowance in all but one patient. These preliminary data emphasize the need to further evaluate the vitamin requirements of infants receiving long-term peritoneal dialysis.