面瘫的临床分类及个性化治疗的研究

目的 介绍根据面神经及面肌的状况进行面瘫临床分类法,并根据此分类提出个性化的治疗方案.方法 根据不同的面瘫类型,分别应用:面神经吻合术、跨面神经移植术、跨面神经移植调控术、带血管神经的游离肌肉移植术、带蒂肌肉转位术修复面瘫.结果 1999至2005年,收治的面瘫病例中:行面神经吻合:15例;跨面神经移植:5例;跨面神经移植调控:6例;带血管神经游离背阔肌移植:58例;带蒂胸锁乳突肌转位:65例.结论 针对不同临床分类的面瘫病例进行个性化的治疗,有望获得较理想的临床效果.     

Surgical procedures for labial reanimation in facial paralysis

With an extensive review of the literature, the authors described the surgical approach of the labial reanimation in facial palsy. First they remind some important points about neural suture, with or without graft. After, the palliatives procedures are detailed (upper and lower lip, unilateral or bilateral). The main surgical treatments are exposed in technical notes, particularly lengthening temporalis myoplasty and free muscle transplantation.     

Surgical treatment of the synkinetic eyelid closure in Marin-Amat syndrome

Marin-Amat syndrome is a synkinesis which develops following facial nerve palsy and manifests as an involuntary eyelid closure when the jaw is opened. We presented 2 patients with Marin-Amat syndrome. One patient developed this syndrome after Bell palsy and the other after cross-facial nerve graft and free functional muscle transfer. Surgery was planned with an attempt to resect the target muscle innervated by the aberrant nerve to eliminate the paradoxical synkinesis. We developed a new surgical technique by resection of the upper or lower preseptal orbicularis oculi muscle (OOM) to treat the synkinetic eyelid closure effectively in both cases. Since the pretarsal and orbital OOM remain intake, patients can close their eyes smoothly. No recurrence or any sequela was noted after long-term follow-up. Careful preoperative electromyography study and detailed dynamic facial image analysis of both upper and lower lid OOM are very important to locate the synkinetic muscle. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report to treat Marin-Amat syndrome successfully with surgical resection of preseptal OOM.     

Histomorphometric studies in patients with facial palsy treated by functional muscle transplantation: new aspects for the surgical concept

Whenever it was possible, muscle and nerve biopsies were performed in patients with irreversible, unilateral facial palsy treated by cross-face nerve grafting and free gracilis muscle transplantation with microneurovascular anastomoses. Planimetric analyses of cross-sections showed the following, to some extent, surprising, results: (1) Independent of the final functional result, approximately the same number of regenerated, thin nerve fibers (100-200) were found in the distal end of the cross-face nerve graft at the time of muscle transplantation. These are approximately 20% of the nerve fibers counted in the branches of the facial nerve at the healthy side used for reinnervation. (2) There is no correlation between the number or diameter of the nerve fibers in the distal end of the cross-face nerve graft and the functional recovery of the transplanted muscle, but there is good correlation between the morphology of the fibers of the muscle graft and the functional result. (3) Different portions of slow-contracting and fast-contracting muscle fibers in the reinnervated muscle grafts showed the strong influence of the quality of the nerve used for the crossover innervation. If a facial nerve branch innervating the slow buccinator muscle was used, the originally fast gracilis muscle was transformed to a slow muscle by this kind of reinnervation. These important findings are the basis of a new view of surgery in the treatment of irreversible facial palsy by functional free-muscle transplantation.     

吻合血管神经的(足母)展肌移植修复晚期面瘫

目的:探讨和研究治疗晚期面瘫的手术治疗,总结应用以足底内侧动静脉为蒂的(足母)展肌游离移植一期修复晚期面瘫40例效果和经验.方法:选取(足母)展肌为供肌,以足底内侧动静脉及其延续的胫后动静脉为血管蒂,以支配(足母)展肌神经及其延续的足底内侧神经和胫神经为神经蒂.(足母)展肌移植于患侧面部皮下,肌近断固定于口角,远端固定于耳前颧弓,血管神经蒂通过上唇皮下隧道与健侧面动静脉和面神经颊支吻合.结果:经随访一年以上,23例恢复了面部静态对称和理想的下面部随意和不随意运动;8例恢复了面部静态对称和部分下面部随意和不随意运动;9例仅恢复了面部静态对称.结论:(足母)展肌游离移植一期修复晚期面瘫具有疗效好、手术操作简便、肌肉大小适中、血管神经蒂走行位置恒定紧密伴行、血管神经蒂可切取较长、变跨面神经移植和肌肉移植的两期移植为一期移植等优点;而且,神经是血管化移植.     

Nerve transfers in facial palsy

The facial paralysis patient suffers serious functional, cosmetic, and psychological problems with impaired ability to communicate. Despite the advances of recent years and the number of new techniques proposed in the literature, facial reanimation remains a challenge for the reconstructive surgeon. With the advent of microsurgery, reanimation of the paralyzed face took a major leap forward with the use of cross facial nerve grafts, nerve transfers, and free muscle transplantation. Today, nerve transfers represent the backbone of facial reanimation, especially in cases where reconstruction of the affected facial nerve is not feasible. The suitability of each nerve transfer is related to the type of facial palsy, time elapsed since injury, and the age and general health of the patient. The selected motor nerve must provide strong muscle contraction and allow the patient to control the facial movements. The purpose of this chapter is to present the senior author's (J.K.T.) experience in the selection of motor nerves that can function as possible donor nerves for dynamic facial reanimation. Indications and surgical technique for each procedure is also presented.     

Upper eyelid gold weight implants in patients with facial nerve palsy. Surgical technique

Facial nerve injuries produce lagophthalmos and consequent ocular disease caused by corneal exposure. The management of the affected eye in patients with facial palsy has been improved. Previously ointment, eye drops, taping, partial or complete tarsorrhaphy was the primary treatment of the inability to close the eyelid. Other mechanical techniques for reanimating lid closure, including palpebral springs, encircling the upper and lower eyelids with silicone or fascia lata, and temporalis muscle transfer. The most popular and widely used static procedure in facial nerve palsy is the upper eyelid gold weight implant. This procedure is the goal of the treatment for the restoration of function and cosmesis to the paralyzed eyelids. The surgical technique used for lid load insertion are described below.     

The vascularized saphenous nerve as cross-face nerve graft

Summary The vascular anatomy of the saphenous nerve was studied by cadaver preparation, Indian ink and micropaque injection. A constant vascularized nerve graft with a good pedicle and suitable length for a cross-face anastomosis was found. The vascularized saphenous nerve was used for the first time as a cross-face graft in 8 patients with facial palsy. The Tinel-sign was followed-up and a biopsy of the nerve graft at the time of the muscle transplantation was carried out to compare the morphological results of the vascularized nerve graft with two free sural nerve grafts which were used in two patients at the same time. The functional results are demonstrated.     

面神经瘫痪外科治疗301例回顾

１９８２年２月至１９９６年６月，共收治各类面瘫病人３０１例。其中采用神经、肌肉移植修复１５７例，筋膜悬吊１１９例，其他２５例。包括：①神经、肌肉移植，Ⅰ期带血管神经肌瓣移植，Ⅱ期带血管、神经肌肉移植；②损伤面神经修复，面神经残端肌肉内种植以及舌下—面神经吻接；③动力性或静力性筋膜悬吊；④其他：面部畸形整形及其他肌肉移植等。认为：早期损伤的面神经吻接，舌下—面神经吻接等是早期外伤性面瘫治疗的最佳选择。Ⅰ期节段性断层背阔肌肌瓣移植是晚期面瘫的最佳选择，６８例中６６例取得了术后动静态平衡。腹内斜肌肌瓣移植是有前途的术式，Ⅱ期胸小肌移植及筋膜悬吊仍是晚期面瘫治疗中可选择的术式。讨论了手术时机的选择和适应证，着重提出带有靶器官的神经移植的生长不是爬行生长，而是逐步的能量积累，由量变到质变的飞跃。     

Axonal regeneration rate through cross-face nerve grafts

The disfigurement of irreversible unilateral facial paralysis can be corrected by cross-face nerve grafting in conjunction with muscle transplantation. A total of 33 patients underwent cross-face nerve grafting using the sural nerve prior to undergoing the second stage of the procedure. Before a muscle transplant can be successfully connected to the distal end of the cross-face nerve graft, the regenerating axons need to have grown from the contralateral facial nerve to the distal end of the nerve graft. This can be tested by the Tinel sign. A retrospective study was performed to determine the rate of growth of regenerating axons through the cross-face nerve graft. A rate of axon growth of 1.8 mm/day was found, and also an inverse relationship between the age of the patient and the regeneration rate. These results can be used as a guide in planning patients' treatment. © 1993 Wiley-Liss Inc.     

面神经瘫痪外科治疗301例回顾

1982年2月至1996年6月,共收治各类面瘫病人301例。其中采用神经、肌肉移植修复157例,筋膜悬吊119例,其他25例。包括:①神经、肌肉移植。Ⅰ期带血管神经肌瓣移植,Ⅱ期带血管、神经肌肉移植;②损伤面神经修复,面神经残端肌肉内种植以及舌下一面神经吻接;③动力性或静力性筋膜悬吊;④其他:面部畸形整形及其他肌肉移植等。认为:早期损伤的面神经吻接,舌下一面神经吻接等是早期外伤性面瘫治疗的最佳选择。Ⅰ期节段性断层背阔肌肌瓣移植是晚期面瘫的最佳选择,68例中66例取得了术后动静态平衡。腹内斜肌肌瓣移植是有前途的术式,Ⅱ期胸小肌移植及筋膜悬吊仍是晚期面瘫治疗中可选择的术式。讨论了手术时机的选择和适应证,着重提出带有靶器官的神经移植的生长不是爬行生长,而是逐步的能量积累,由量变到质变的飞跃。     

Workhorse Free Functional Muscle Transfer Techniques for Smile Reanimation in Children with Congenital Facial Palsy: Case Report and Systematic Review of the Literature

BackgroundPediatric facial palsy represents a rare multifactorial entity. Facial reanimation restores smiling, thus boosting self-confidence and social integration of the affected children. The purpose of this paper is to present a systematic review of microsurgical workhorse free functional muscle transfer procedures with emphasis on the long-term functional, aesthetic, and psychosocial outcomes.Materials and methodsWe performed a literature search of the PubMed database from 1995 to 2019 using the following search strategy: "facial paralysis"[Title/Abstract] OR "facial palsy"[Title]. We used as limits: full text, English language, age younger than 18 years, and humans. Two independent reviewers performed the online screening process using Covidence. Forty articles met the inclusion criteria. The protocol was aligned with the PRISMA statement (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) and was registered at the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO, CRD42019150112) of the National Institute for Health Research.ResultsFree functional muscle transfer procedures include mainly segmental gracilis, latissimus dorsi, and pectoralis minor muscle transfer. Facial reanimation procedures with the use of the cross-face nerve graft (CFNG) or masseteric nerve result in almost symmetric smiles. The transplanted muscle grows harmoniously along with the craniofacial skeleton. Muscle function and aesthetic outcomes improve over time. All children presented improved self-esteem, oral commissure opening, facial animation, and speech.ConclusionsA two-stage CFNG plus an FFMT may restore a spontaneous emotive smile in pediatric facial palsy patients. Superior results of children FFMT compared to adults FFMT are probably attributed to greater brain plasticity.     

Facial nerve palsy due to a parotid abscess: Two case reports and a review of literature

Introduction and importanceParotid gland swelling with facial nerve palsy is highly suggestive of a malignancy. Facial nerve palsy is however rarely caused by a parotid abscess. We hereby present two cases, propose treatment and present a review of the literature.Case presentation and clinical discussionOne 75-year-old female and one 81-year-old female presented with a facial nerve paralysis, both caused by a parotid gland abscess. Broad-spectrum antibiotics and incision and drainage was commenced in both cases. Both patients showed good clinical improvement, however, without facial nerve improvement. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans showed no malignancies at presentation nor during follow-up after one year.ConclusionFacial nerve palsy is rarely caused by a parotid abscess. Incision and drainage in combination with antibiotic treatment is recommended. Chances of facial nerve recovery seem somewhat higher in patients with facial nerve paresis than those with a paralysis.     

Neurinoma of the Greater Superficial Petrosal Nerve Developed Acute Facial Palsy: Case Report and Review of the Literature

The authors report on a patient with a greater superficial petrosal nerve neurinoma. The patient developed severe acute facial palsy and the palsy improved soon after removal of the tumor. We review of the literature and describe its rarity and surgical treatment with regard to other facial nerve neurinomas originating from the main trunk of the facial nerve.     

Gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in facial nerve lesions

We present our 2-year experience with a contrast enhancement agent in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examining facial nerve pathology. Characteristics of the agent gadolinium diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid are reviewed. The radiographic capability to differentiate pathologic vs. normal facial nerves based on enhancement and a change in signal intensity generated by the nerve is demonstrated. Experience with facial nerve disorders including Bell's palsy, facial nerve neuromas, a facial nerve graft site, postoperative facial paralysis, and traumatic facial paralysis is presented. The ability to image the facial nerve in Bell's palsy provides an entirely new means of examining this disorder, and its implications are discussed. The ability to enhance the paralyzed facial nerve in the temporal bone after posterior fossa surgery supports a previously held concept as to the pathophysiology of this problem.     

Facial nerve repair by interposition nerve graft: results in 22 patients.

Resection of tumors of the posterior cranial base may incorporate a segment of the facial nerve because of tumor infiltration, or may result in unplanned nerve injury. Immediate repair of the facial nerve by resuture or with an autogenous nerve graft is highly desirable to ensure optimal recovery of facial function. Twenty-four patients who underwent extensive surgery of the posterior skull base and facial nerve reconstruction were studied. Of these, 12 patients had preoperative facial weakness and 3 had facial palsy. All patients underwent graft reconstruction from the subarachnoid or labyrinthine portion of the facial nerve to the fallopian or extracranial segment. The greater auricular nerve was used as a graft in 14 patients, and the sural nerve in 10. Two patients died of their disease soon after surgery, and, therefore, were excluded from our follow-up. In the remaining 22 patients, the median follow-up time was 20 months. As evaluated by the House-Brackmann grading system, 45% (10/22) of the surviving patients achieved a good recovery of facial function, 36% (8/22) attained a fair recovery, and 18% (4/22) had minimal or no recovery. There was no statistical correlation between the length of the graft used and the degree or timing of clinical recovery. The surgical result obtained in all patients with complete preoperative facial palsy and in one patient with dense facial paresis was poor.     

Facial palsy and achondroplasia: a rare association

The association of facial palsy and achondroplasia is rare. The authors present two cases of such association. To their knowledge this has never been described before in the medical literature. Both patients underwent a two-stage facial reanimation procedure using nerve grafting and a free gracilis muscle transfer with very satisfactory functional and cosmetic results.     

A new paradigm in facial reanimation for long-standing palsies?

Background:A chance observation of return of excellent facial movement, after 18 months following the first stage of cross-face nerve grafting, without free functional muscle transfer, in a case of long-standing facial palsy, lead the senior author (RBA) to further investigate clinically.Results:Successive patients had excellent to good return of facial expression with two fair results. Besides improved smile, patients could largely retain air in the mouth without any escape and had improved mastication. No complications were encountered except synkinesis in 1 patient. No additional surgical procedures were performed.Conclusion:There is experimental evidence to suggest that neurotization of a completely denervated muscle can occur by the formation of new ectopic motor end plates. Long-standing denervated muscle fibres eventually atrophy severely but are capable of re-innervation and regeneration, as validated by electron microscopic studies. In spite of several suggestions in the literature to clinically validate functional recovery by direct neurotization, the concept remains anecdotal. Our results substantiate this procedure, and it has the potential to simplify reanimation in longstanding facial palsy. Our work now needs validation by other investigators in the field of restoring facial animation.KEY WORDS: Cross face nerve grafting, facial palsy, facial reanimation, neurotization     

Hypoglossal-facial crossover in facial-nerve palsy: pure end-to-sideanastomosis technique.

Hypoglossal-facial crossover is the most popular method of reconstructing the facial nerve in facial palsy resulting from proximal facial-nerve injury near the brainstem. Conventional hypoglossal-facial crossover involves performing a partial hypoglossal-nerve section or incision and an interpositional nerve graft to bridge the gap between the two nerves, which sometimes results in hemiglossal atrophy and its sequelae. Furthermore, the nerve graft may delay recovery and make facial reanimation weak. To solve these problems, we attempted to perform 'pure end-to-side anastomosis' (without section of the hypoglossal nerve) between the hypoglossal and facial nerves in four patients with facial palsy. In two patients (group I) a sural-nerve graft was used to bridge the gap between the two nerves. In the other two patients (group II) the intratemporal facial nerve was mobilised to the neck and one tension-free end-to-side anastomosis was performed. Facial symmetry and tone at rest were restored in all cases. Facial reanimation was achieved in group II after 8 months. Despite the small number of cases, we believe that the technique of hypoglossal-facial crossover with 'pure end-to-side anastomosis' and mobilisation of the intratemporal facial nerve can decrease donor-nerve morbidity in facial-nerve rehabilitation.     

Repair of the facial nerve in the cerebellopontine angle using freeze-thawed skeletal muscle autografts. An experimental surgical study in the sheep

Summary Six adult blackface sheep underwent repair of the transected facial nerve in the cerebellopontine angle using short freezethawed muscle autografts. A typical facial palsy was observed on the side of the intervention immediately after operation. The sheep were allowed to recover for one year by which time clinical observation showed a complete recovery of the facial palsy in 5 sheep and a partial recovery in the remaining sheep. Under general anaesthesia function of the repaired VIIth nerve and the normal contralateral facial nerve were assessed using electrophysiological stimulating and recording techniques. These studies showed restoration of facial nerve continuity to have taken place with functional reinnervation of target facial muscles. Electrophysiological indices of nerve function were consistent with those expected after repair of any peripheral nerve. Morphometric study of the nerves after their removal showed structural changes which though quantitatively different from those of normal nerve were consistent with those seen in other sites and studies where nerves have been repaired. This technique is discussed as a possible treatment for facial nerves whose continuity is disrupted during the removal of cerebellopontine angle tumours.