Thirteen-Year Follow-Up Reverse Sural Artery Flap for Plantar Calcaneal Wound: A Case Report

Reconstruction of soft tissue defects in the lower leg and foot after traumatic injury is a challenging problem owing to lack of locally reliable flaps. The traditional options for wound coverage often do not provide feasible or adequate treatment for many of these wounds. The lack of skin laxity in the lower leg and foot often make local flaps unavailable. Split-thickness skin grafts will not be robust enough. Free tissue flaps have a litany of potential complications and guaranteed comorbidities. The present case reinforces that appropriately selected patients with significant open bony and soft tissue trauma to the foot and ankle can be treated with a reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap. The reverse sural artery flap allows for full-thickness skin coverage with its own blood supply, maximizing the healing potential and should be considered a viable first option for soft tissue coverage.     

腓肠浅动脉逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣急诊修复下肢创伤性皮肤软组织缺损

目的探讨急诊一期修复小腿中下段及足部创伤性软组织缺损的方法. 方法 2000年2月～2003年12月,应用同侧腓肠浅动脉逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣急诊一期修复小腿及足部皮肤软组织缺损18例,并分析其可行性及手术注意点;切取皮瓣4 cm×5 cm～11 cm×12 cm. 结果除2例皮瓣远端1/3发绀并坏死经换药Ⅱ期愈合外,其余皮瓣均Ⅰ期愈合.随访1～2年,有2例皮瓣臃肿,其余外观满意,功能均恢复正常. 结论腓肠浅动脉逆行岛状筋膜皮瓣急诊修复创伤性皮肤软组织缺损,具有早期闭合创面、促进早期功能锻炼的优点,尤其适合于急诊修复小腿下1/3及其足踝部的皮肤软组织缺损.     

Der simultane distal gestielte Suralislappen

Exposed bradytrophic tissue in regions with high mechanical loading is an indication for defect coverage with (myo-, adipo-) fasciocutaneous flaps. In this case, distally based sural flaps were used for bilateral coverage of defects in weight-bearing areas of feet after fourth-degree frostbite. Residual defects can be covered with a split skin mesh graft. The definitive prosthetic supply of the foot assumes a stabilized plantar soft tissue situation. Among its advantages in comparison to free microvascular flaps, the locally based fasciocutaneous flap can be harvested with less donor site morbidity after elevation and does not require secondary debulking. It has been shown that the reduced stability at the border zone between flap and mesh graft has an adverse effect.     

Sural artery flap: a dependable solution in lower leg and foot soft tissue reconstruction

For a variety of reasons, mainly anatomical, the skin and soft tissue defects in the lower leg and foot remain a challenging problem for reconstructive surgeons. Simple skin grafts, local random flaps, cross leg flaps, microvascular flaps, etc., have been used to tackle this difficult problem. Although to date, probably the most popular flaps are the fasciocutaneous flaps based on one of the three major vessels of the leg. We have used a fasciocutaneous flap based on sural artery, accompanying the sural nerve to cover moderate-sized defects in 12 cases. This eliminates the sacrifice of major vessels, and the procedure is easy, quick, and dependable.     

Foot and ankle reconstruction: An experience on the use of 14 different flaps in 226 cases

The aim of this report was to present our experience on the use of different flaps for soft tissue reconstruction of the foot and ankle. From 2007 to 2012, the soft tissue defects of traumatic injuries of the foot and ankle were reconstructed using 14 different flaps in 226 cases (162 male and 64 female). There were 62 pedicled flaps and 164 free flaps used in reconstruction. The pedicled flaps included sural flap, saphenous flap, dorsal pedal neurocutaneous flap, pedicled peroneal artery perforator flap, pedicled tibial artery perforator flap, and medial plantar flap. The free flaps were latissimus musculocutaneous flap, anterolateral thigh musculocutaneous flap, groin flap, lateral arm flap, anterolateral thigh perforator flap, peroneal artery perforator flap, thoracdorsal artery perforator flap, medial arm perforator flap. The sensory nerve coaptation was not performed for all of flaps. One hundred and ninety‐four cases were combined with open fractures. One hundred and sixty‐two cases had tendon. Among 164 free flaps, 8 flaps were completely lost, in which the defects were managed by the secondary procedures. Among the 57 flaps for plantar foot coverage (25 pedicled flaps and 32 free flaps), ulcers were developed in 5 pedicled flaps and 6 free flaps after weight bearing, and infection was found in 14 flaps. The donor site complications were seen in 3 cases with the free anterolateral thigh perforator flap transfer. All of limbs were preserved and the patients regained walking and daily activities. All of patients except for one regained protective sensation from 3 to 12 months postoperatively. Our experience showed that the sural flap and saphenous flap could be good options for the coverage of the defects at malleolus, dorsal hindfoot and midfoot. Plantar foot, forefoot and large size defects could be reconstructed with free anterolateral thigh perforator flap. For the infected wounds with dead spce, the free latissimus dorsi musculocutaneous flap remained to be the optimal choice. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Microsurgery 33:600–604, 2013.     

Surgical review: the versatile reverse flow sural artery flap for lower 1/3 leg and foot defects: clinical series

Background  

The soft tissue defects of lower third leg, ankle, and foot present a challenging problem because of the paucity of local tissue and poor circulation of skin in that region. Various forms of coverage including muscle flaps, fascial flaps, and free flaps are used for reconstruction. Each have their specific indications and inherent disadvantages. Distally based fasciocutaneous flap supplied by vascular axis around sural nerve is intensively researched and constitutes another important alternative to lower third and foot reconstruction.     

不同类型皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的临床效果

目的探讨不同类型皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的临床效果。方法对30例足踝部软组织缺损患者进行皮瓣修复,其中足底内侧皮瓣修复足跟部软组织缺损7例,股前外侧皮瓣修复足背、足内侧软组织缺损12例,腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损11例。结果患者均获得随访,时间1~5年。29例皮瓣完全成活,仅1例股前外侧皮瓣发生坏死,二次手术给予植皮。13例患者因皮瓣臃肿,二期行皮瓣修整术;2例患者因术后长期从事体力劳动足跟部发生溃疡;其余患者皮瓣质地柔软,踝关节功能恢复满意。供区均未出现并发症。足底内侧皮瓣修复患者皮瓣感觉功能完全恢复,股前外侧皮瓣修复患者感觉均部分恢复,5例吻合神经腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣患者于术后3~5个月感觉功能完全恢复,剩余患者感觉功能部分恢复。结论足底内侧皮瓣、股前外侧皮瓣、腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣各有优缺点,应根据足踝部软组织缺损面积、部位的不同选择合适的皮瓣,以提高皮瓣成活率,重建肢体功能。     

Free medial sural artery perforator flap for ankle and foot reconstruction

Resurfacing shallow defects over the ankle and foot with an appropriately thin flap is a common but difficult task. This can be accomplished by harvesting the medial sural artery perforator flap from the medial aspect of the upper calf. Based on the musculocutaneous perforator of the medial sural artery, this flap preserves the medial gastrocnemius muscle and avoids unnecessary flap bulkiness. Between January 2002 and February 2004, we used 2 variants of the free medial sural artery perforator flap for ankle and foot reconstruction in 13 patients (10 fasciocutaneous flaps and 3 adipofascial flaps). In these patients, skin defects were combined with bone, joint, or tendon exposure. The main advantage of this flap is that it provides a thin and pliable coverage to achieve better accuracy in the reconstructive site. Other advantages include maintaining the function of the medial gastrocnemius muscle, providing a long vascular pedicle, and avoiding the need to sacrifice major arteries of the leg. The main disadvantages are the tedious process of intramuscular retrograde dissection of the perforator and the unsightly skin graft over the medial calf.     

Reverse sural island flap elevated from the proximal third of the leg: its reliability and versatility in distal leg and foot reconstruction

Soft tissue loss around the distal third of the leg and foot has remained a considerable challenge. A reconstructive option providing supple tissue, while avoiding the complexity and the high technical demand of free flaps is a welcome alternative. The sural island flap largely satisfies these criteria. A number of authors have suggested raising the skin island from the junction of the middle and upper third of the leg to improve its reliability. However, raising the flap over the upper third of the leg may provide a larger amount of tissue and often makes dissection of its most distal perforator unnecessary. This study aims to assess the reliability and versatility of the reverse sural island flap elevated from the proximal third of the leg for soft tissue reconstruction of the distal leg and foot. Consecutive patients with soft tissue loss around the distal third of the leg and the ankle region requiring flap cover who met the inclusion criteria were managed using the distally based sural island flap elevated from the upper third of the leg. The outcome has been analysed. There were 15 patients, 11 males and four females with an age range of 22 to 54 years. Thirteen patients had distal third open tibial fractures while two had open calcaneal injuries. Nine resulted from motorcycle accidents, four from motor vehicular accidents while two were gunshot wounds. Flap sizes ranged from 10 × 7 cm to 22 × 12 cm. Thirteen flaps had full survival while two flaps had partial necrosis. All donor sites were skin grafted with 95% to 100% graft take. The use of the reverse sural island flap elevated from the proximal third of the leg for coverage of soft tissue defects of the distal leg and foot is safe and reliable in our experience. It provides a sizeable amount of soft tissue while maintaining a robust blood supply.     

Different surgical procedures for reconstruction of soft-tissue defects around the ankle

IntroductionManagement of soft tissue defects around the ankle is a difficult and challenging situation for all reconstructive surgeons. A microsurgical free flaps coverage can solve this problematic situation especially with large defects that is not available in all trauma centers. Moreover, long operating time and suitable operative demands are considered obstacles.Materials and methodEighty five patients having soft tissue defects around ankle were included in this study. They underwent various reconstructions in our specialized hand and reconstructive microsurgery unit from 2015 to 2019. Fifty two were males and thirty three patients were females. Road traffic accident was the main cause of injury in 66 patients followed by implant exposure in 15 patients and chronic osteomyelitis in 4 patients. Distally based superficial sural artery flap was used to reconstruct the defects in 21 cases, free flap was used in 32 cases, Rotational local flap was used in 8 cases, contralateral distally based superficial sural artery flap was used in 2 cases, full or partial skin flaps were used in 10 cases and Propeller flap was used in 12cases.ResultsAll flaps survived except for one modified sural flap with 98% success rate and average follow up of 48 months. All patients were satisfied with the functional capacity of operated limbs. Average time of bone healing postoperative was 3 months with gradual return to original work with acceptable degrees for cosmotic appearance of the limbs.ConclusionMany treatment options are available to cover defects around the ankle. Propeller and rotational flaps are fast and easy but cover small defects, distally-based modified sural artery flap is an excellent reliable flap. Microsurgical free flaps provide good contour, color, texture and cover large defects but require microsurgery facilities to execute.     

足踝部皮肤软组织缺损的显微外科修复选择

目的 探讨应用带蒂皮瓣及游离皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损的方法和临床疗效.方法 2008年3月至2010年3月共收治28例足踝部软组织缺损患者,男21例,女7例;年龄6～62岁,平均34.0岁.致伤原因:交通伤13例,机器压砸伤11例,坠落伤2例,慢性溃疡1例,烫伤1例.皮肤缺损面积4.0 cm×7.0 cm～11.0 cm×44.0 cm.术前根据患者足踝部软组织缺损及其他组织损伤情况,急诊或择期选择带蒂皮瓣或游离皮瓣移植修复足缺损,其中应用股前外侧皮瓣10例,腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣8例,内踝上穿支皮瓣4例,跗外侧皮瓣3例,足底内侧皮瓣2例,背阔肌皮瓣1例.术后对皮瓣的存活情况和愈合质量进行随访. 结果 28例患者术后获4～24个月(平均14个月)随访.2例术后出现皮瓣远端坏死,2例皮瓣边缘部分坏死,经换药、抗感染和植皮术后创面愈合;其余移植的皮瓣均成活,创面一期修复,皮瓣外形良好,质地、弹性好,足踝部功能恢复,行走正常. 结论 足踝部软组织缺损修复应根据损伤部位、面积及程度来决定选用邻近带蒂组织或游离组织移植修复.足跟及踝部缺损可选用腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣、足底内侧皮瓣、内踝上皮瓣和跗外侧皮瓣等;大面积或广泛剥脱伤需选用游离皮瓣,如股前外侧皮瓣或背阔肌皮瓣;前足小范围缺损,应用跗外侧皮瓣进行修复有其优势.     

Experience with the distally based sural neurofasciocutaneous flap supplied by the terminal perforator of peroneal vessels for ankle and foot reconstruction

The distally based sural fasciocutaneous flap has been proved an excellent option for coverage of the soft tissue defects of the lower third of the leg, ankle, and foot. In this article, we reported on a series of foot and ankle reconstructions with a distally based sural neurofasciocutaneous flap supplied by the terminal perforating branch of the peroneal artery. The vascular pedicle of the flap includes the terminal perforator branch of the peroneal artery and concomitant veins. The pivot point is approximately 5 cm above the tip of lateral malleolus. Fifteen patients with soft tissue defects of the foot and/or ankle underwent the procedures of reconstruction. The flaps were designed with the size measuring 8 x 9 cm to 13 x 31 cm. Thirteen flaps survived completely and 2 with partial or margin necrosis. Our experience has demonstrated that this sural flap with a thin perforator pedicle can be easily rotated, used for coverage of a large tissue defect including the forefoot area, and provide a good texture match and contour for the recipient area.     

The reverse sural artery flap for the reconstruction of distal third of the leg and foot

Soft tissue defects around the distal third of the leg and the foot present a major reconstructive challenge. There is limited expertise with free tissue transfers in many developing countries, necessitating consideration of other options for the closure of such defects. The versatility and reliability of sural artery flap have made it an emerging popular option for the reconstruction of such defects. Twenty patients comprising of 13 males and 7 females with soft tissue defects of the lower third of the leg and foot requiring soft tissue cover were treated between January 2006 and December 2010. The age range was 7–58 years with a mean age of 30 years. Nineteen (95%) of the defects were post‐traumatic while one (5%) was post‐infective. All the defects were covered with reversed sural artery flaps, which were raised on the posterior aspect of the junction of the upper and middle third of the leg. The smallest flap was 4 × 4 cm² while the largest measured 20 × 12 cm². The donor defect was closed directly in 7 (35%) patients, while split skin graft was applied in the remaining 13 (65%) patients. There was satisfactory flap healing in 17 patients (85%), while 3 patients (15%) had complete flap necrosis. Two of these patients had significant comorbidities of haemoglobinopathy and poorly controlled diabetes mellitus. Sural artery flap remains a viable option for the reconstruction of soft tissue defects of the distal third of the leg and foot. Caution should, however, be exercised in patients with some significant systemic diseases.     

Superficial sural artery flap--a study in 40 cases.

The distally based superficial sural artery flap is an important skin flap that can be used for soft tissue defects of the distal lower limb and proximal foot. It is a versatile flap, has a wide arc of rotation and requires minimal expertise. Forty patients with soft tissue defects of the lower leg due to various causes were treated with sural flaps and the results are discussed. The flap was either used as a long pedicled flap or islanded to treat patients with ages ranging from 4 to 75 years. The arc of rotation of the flap was N 90-180 degrees with minimal flap loss in most of the cases. On this basis we would like to reintroduce the safe and reliable use of the sural flap to treat large soft tissue defects of the distal lower limb and the proximal foot.     

腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣修复小腿下段及足部组织缺损

目的 了解腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣修复小腿下段及足部组织缺损的临床效果.方法 1997年6月-2007年8月,笔者对56例小腿下段及足部组织缺损患者(小腿下段软组织缺损10例;创面感染,胫、腓骨骨折外露,骨坏死38例;足部组织缺损、贴骨瘢痕、骨髓炎8例)的创面,采用腓动脉穿支供血的腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣(46例)或肌皮瓣(10例)进行修复.皮瓣面积5 cm ×4 cm～22 cm × 16 cm,供瓣区直接拉拢缝合或行游离植皮封闭.结果 其中55例患者术后皮瓣完全成活,创面愈合.随访3～6个月无任何并发症,皮瓣质地优良,外观满意,患者行走正常,但皮瓣感觉功能恢复欠佳.1例患者治疗时为保留下肢长度,未将部分坏死胫骨去除,术后1个月皮肤破溃,经再次手术后创面愈合.结论 腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣或肌皮瓣移植术,是修复小腿下段及足部软组织缺损的较佳方法.     

Utility of both muscle and fascia flaps in severe lower extremity trauma

BACKGROUND: The evolving technology in trauma management today permits salvage of many severe lower extremity injuries previously even considered to be lethal. An essential component for any such treatment protocol must be adequate soft tissue coverage that often will use vascularized flaps. Traditionally, calf muscles have been used proximally and free flaps for the distal leg and foot. The reintroduction of reliable local fascia flaps has challenged this dictum, proving to be a simpler and yet versatile option. MATERIALS AND METHOD: The role of both muscle and fascia flaps in lower extremity injuries has been retrospectively reviewed from a 2-decade experience. Soft tissue deficits requiring some form of vascularized flap occurred in 160 limbs in 155 patients. The frequency of use of flap types, specific complications and benefits, effect of timing of wound closure, and rate of limb salvage were compared. RESULTS: Initial coverage after significant lower extremity trauma in these 160 limbs required 60 local muscle flaps, 50 local fascia flaps, and 74 free flaps. These flaps had been selected on a nonrandom basis according to wound location, its severity, and flap availability. Complications were directly related to the severity of injury, and for free flaps as a group (39%), although these were not independent variables. Local muscle (27%) or fascia flaps (30%) were similar with regard to this morbidity. Healing was more likely to be uneventful if coverage were accomplished during the acute period after injury, regardless of flap type. Muscle flaps were still used in two thirds of all cases, with the soleus muscle used as often for the distal leg as the mid-leg. Local fascia flaps were most valuable for smaller defects, especially in the distal leg or foot, and often as a reasonable alternative to a free flap. CONCLUSION: The traditional role of the gastrocnemius muscles for flap coverage of knee and proximal leg defects and the soleus muscle for the middle third of the leg was reaffirmed. The soleus muscle often also reached distal leg defects as could local fascia flaps, where classically, otherwise, a free flap would have been necessary. The largest or most severe wounds, irrespective of limb location, required free flap coverage. Local fascia flaps proved to be a valuable alternative.     

小腿或足部软组织缺损伴骨、肌腱外露的显微外科修复

目的 报道小腿或足部软组织缺损伴骨、肌腱外露应用显微外科修复的临床效果。方法 采用6种类型的皮瓣进行修复30例，其中吻合血管的背阔肌皮瓣12例包括采用胸背血管-小腿腓肠血管吻合的3例、吻合血管的阔筋膜张肌皮瓣3例、股前外侧皮瓣1例、小腿外侧逆行岛状皮瓣l例、小腿内侧岛状皮瓣l例、腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣12例。结果 吻合血管的肌皮瓣、皮瓣移植16例全部成活。14例岛状皮瓣除4例腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣远端小部分坏死外，其余均成活。术后随访l～4年，修复小腿软组织缺损10例的功能与外观均较满意。修复足部20例，其中涉及足跟、足底负重区12例包括4例全足皮肤脱套伤，均恢复了行走功能。结论 小腿、足部软组织缺损伴骨、肌腱外露、骨髓炎患，应用显微外科修复可取得较满意的效果。最佳手术方案的制定，精细熟练的显微手术，血管危象的防治是手术成功的关键。     

Reverse peroneal artery flap for large defects of ankle and foot: A reliable reconstructive technique

Background:

Large soft tissue defects around the lower third of the leg, ankle and foot always have been challenging to reconstruct. Reverse sural flaps have been used for this problem with variable success. Free tissue transfer has revolutionised management of these problem wounds in selected cases.

Materials and Methods:

Twenty-two patients with large defects around the lower third of the leg, ankle and foot underwent reconstruction with reverse peroneal artery flap (RPAF) over a period of 7 years. The mean age of these patients was 41.2 years.

Results:

Of the 22 flaps, 21 showed complete survival without even marginal necrosis. One flap failed, where atherosclerotic occlusion of peroneal artery was evident on the table. Few patients had minor donor site problems that settled with conservative management.

Conclusions:

RPAF is a very reliable flap for the coverage of large soft tissue defects of the heel, sole and dorsum of foot. This flap adds versatility in planning and execution of this extended reverse sural flap.KEY WORDS: Distally based peroneal flaps, extended reverse sural flaps, foot reconstruction, peroneal artery, reverse peroneal flaps     

以腓动脉远端穿支血管供血为蒂的小腿后外侧（复合）组织瓣的临床应用

目的探讨腓动脉穿支供血的小腿后外侧（复合）组织瓣在足踝部软组织缺损、骨感染修复中的临床效果。方法2007年3月至2010年9月,对23例足踝部软组织（跟腱）缺损及骨感染的患者,设计以腓动脉终末穿支为血管蒂,沿腓肠神经营养血管轴线切取皮瓣转位修复小腿下段及足踝部皮肤软组织缺损。采用腓动脉下段穿支供血携带腓肠神经逆行岛状（复合）皮瓣或肌皮瓣进行修复。皮瓣切取范围3cm×5cm～10cm×18cm。结果术后21例皮瓣完全成活,创面一期愈合,2例皮瓣边缘部分坏死,后经过二期扩创游离植皮后痊愈,平均住院时间21d。随访2～9个月,皮瓣质地优良,外观满意,无色素沉着、溃疡,皮瓣感觉恢复约S2,跟腱重建患者踝关节达功能位,恢复了劳动能力。结论以腓动脉远端穿支血管供血为蒂的小腿后外侧（复合）组织瓣血供可靠,变异率低,切取方便,供区隐蔽,可恢复部分感觉,且不牺牲肢体主要血管,是修复小腿中下部、踝关节周围及足部软组织缺损的一种良好方法。尤其对修复足踝部骨外露,骨髓炎,跟腱缺损,复合组织瓣（携带跟腱及肌肉）是一种较好的选择。