Ethyl pyruvate induces necrosis-to-apoptosis switch and inhibits high mobility group box protein 1 release in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells

Ethyl pyruvate (EP), a stable lipophilic pyruvate derivative, has been shown to exert anti-inflammatory activities through inhibiting the expression of various pro-inflammatory mediators as well as circulating levels of high mobility group box protein 1 (HMGB1) in a variety of in vitro and in vivo model systems. Necrotic cell death triggers an inflammatory response through release of HMGB1 in the extracellular space due to the membrane rupture. In an effort to better understand the pharmacological action mechanism that could explain the anti-inflammatory properties of EP, we examined the effects of EP on necrotic cell death in A549 lung adenocarcinoma cells in response to glucose deprivation (GD), a common characteristic of the tumor microenvironment. Here we show that EP prevented GD-induced necrosis and HMGB1 release and switched the cell death mode to apoptosis through inhibiting GD-induced CuZn superoxide dismutase release and ROS production. These results suggest that the necrosis-to-apoptosis switch activity of EP may contribute to its anti-inflammatory action and that EP may suppress tumor development possibly through its activity to induce the cell death mode switch from tumor promoting necrotic cell death to tumor suppressive apoptotic cell death.     

Infection of human monocyte-derived macrophages with Chlamydia trachomatis induces apoptosis of T cells: a potential mechanism for persistent infection

Viruses can escape T-cell surveillance by infecting macrophages and thereby induce apoptosis of noninfected T cells. This ability had not been demonstrated for bacteria. We investigated whether infection of macrophages with the important human pathogen Chlamydia trachomatis can induce T-cell apoptosis. Because Chlamydia-Mycoplasma coinfection is a frequent event, the ability of Mycoplasma fermentans-infected macrophages to induce T-cell apoptosis was also studied. Infected macrophages were cocultivated with autologous T cells in different activation states. Propidium iodide-based fluorescence-activated cell sorter analysis demonstrated that macrophages infected with viable chlamydiae induced T-cell death. Apoptosis was identified as the mode of death induction by using a terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase-mediated dUTP-biotin nick end labeling assay. Induction of T-cell death was macrophage dependent. Incubation of T cells with infectious chlamydiae in the absence of macrophages did not lead to T-cell apoptosis. UV irradiation of chlamydiae diminished the ability to induce death. T-cell death was induced by a cell-free supernatant of infected macrophages. Not only phytohemagglutinin-preactivated T cells but also non-mitogen-preactivated T cells were susceptible to C. trachomatis-induced apoptosis. In contrast, M. fermentans infection of macrophages did not induce T-cell death. Coinfection had no additional effect. In summary, intracellular chlamydial infection of macrophages can induce T-cell apoptosis. Apoptosis induction by chlamydiae possibly explains how persistently infected macrophages escape T-cell surveillance and why the Chlamydia-specific T-cell response is diminished during persistent chlamydial infection.     

Induction of high mobility group box 1 release from serotonin-stimulated human umbilical vein endothelial cells

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a non-histone nuclear protein which is released from the nucleus of activated macrophages into the extracellular space in response to stimuli such as endotoxin or necrosis. The HMGB1 functions as a potent proinflammatory cytokine in the extracellular spaces. Recently, HMGB1 has been implicated in the progression of atherosclerosis. However, the association between HMGB1 and the development of atherosclerosis is poorly understood. Therefore, we examined whether serotonin (5-HT), a key factor involved in the development of atherosclerosis, induced HMGB1 release in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). We found that 5-HT induced the release of HMGB1 but not of ERK1/2 and JNK from HUVECs via the 5-HT receptor (5-HT1B)/p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway. The p38MAPK inhibitor SB203580 and the 5-HT1B antagonist GR55526 markedly inhibited HMGB1 release from 5-HT-stimulated HUVECs. The vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) derived from activated macrophages in atherosclerotic lesions also plays an important role in the progression of atherosclerosis. We found that HMGB1 induced VEGF production in macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells. HMGB1 induced the activation of p38MAPK, ERK1/2 and Akt. The PI3-kinase inhibitor LY294002 significantly inhibited VEGF production in HMGB1-stimulated macrophages, while other kinase inhibitors did not. These results suggest that HMGB1 release may contribute as a risk factor in the development and progression of atherosclerosis.     

Molecular mechanism and therapeutic modulation of high mobility group box 1 release and action: an updated review

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is an evolutionarily conserved protein, and is constitutively expressed in virtually all types of cells. Infection and injury converge on common inflammatory responses that are mediated by HMGB1 secreted from immunologically activated immune cells or passively released from pathologically damaged cells. Herein we review the emerging molecular mechanisms underlying the regulation of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs)-induced HMGB1 secretion, and summarize many HMGB1-targeting therapeutic strategies for the treatment of infection- and injury-elicited inflammatory diseases. It may well be possible to develop strategies that specifically attenuate damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs)-mediated inflammatory responses without compromising the PAMPs-mediated innate immunity for the clinical management of infection- and injury-elicited inflammatory diseases.     

Chlamydia trachomatis induces remodeling of the actin cytoskeleton during attachment and entry into HeLa cells

To elucidate the host cell machinery utilized by Chlamydia trachomatis to invade epithelial cells, we examined the role of the actin cytoskeleton in the internalization of chlamydial elementary bodies (EBs). Treatment of HeLa cells with cytochalasin D markedly inhibited the internalization of C. trachomatis serovar L2 and D EBs. Association of EBs with HeLa cells induced localized actin polymerization at the site of attachment, as visualized by either phalloidin staining of fixed cells or the active recruitment of GFP-actin in viable infected cells. The recruitment of actin to the specific site of attachment was accompanied by dramatic changes in the morphology of cell surface microvilli. Ultrastructural studies revealed a transient microvillar hypertrophy that was dependent upon C. trachomatis attachment, mediated by structural components on the EBs, and cytochalasin D sensitive. In addition, a mutant CHO cell line that does not support entry of C. trachomatis serovar L2 did not display such microvillar hypertrophy following exposure to L2 EBs, which is in contrast to infection with serovar D, to which it is susceptible. We propose that C. trachomatis entry is facilitated by an active actin remodeling process that is induced by the attachment of this pathogen, resulting in distinct microvillar reorganization throughout the cell surface and the formation of a pedestal-like structure at the immediate site of attachment and entry.     

Cysteinyl leukotriene receptor 2 drives lung immunopathology through a platelet and high mobility box 1-dependent mechanism

Cysteinyl leukotrienes (cysLTs) facilitate eosinophilic mucosal type 2 immunopathology, especially in aspirin-exacerbated respiratory disease (AERD), by incompletely understood mechanisms. We now demonstrate that platelets, activated through the type 2 cysLT receptor (CysLT₂R), cause IL-33-dependent immunopathology through a rapidly inducible mechanism requiring the actions of high mobility box 1 (HMGB1) and the receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE). Leukotriene C₄ (LTC₄) induces surface HMGB1 expression by mouse platelets in a CysLT₂R-dependent manner. Blockade of RAGE and neutralization of HMGB1 prevent LTC₄-induced platelet activation. Challenges of AERD-like Ptges^−/− mice with inhaled lysine aspirin (Lys-ASA) elicit LTC₄ synthesis and cause rapid intrapulmonary recruitment of platelets with adherent granulocytes, along with platelet- and CysLT₂R-mediated increases in lung IL-33, IL-5, IL-13, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid HMGB1. The intrapulmonary administration of exogenous LTC₄ mimics these effects. Platelet depletion, HMGB1 neutralization, and pharmacologic blockade of RAGE eliminate all manifestations of Lys-ASA challenges, including increase in IL-33, mast cell activation, and changes in airway resistance. Thus, CysLT₂R signaling on platelets prominently utilizes RAGE/HMGB1 as a link to downstream type 2 respiratory immunopathology and IL-33-dependent mast cell activation typical of AERD. Antagonists of HMGB1 or RAGE may be useful to treat AERD and other disorders associated with type 2 immunopathology.     

Persistent infection of mouse fibroblasts (McCoy cells) with a trachoma strain of Chlamydia trachomatis.

An in vitro model of persistent infection of mouse fibroblasts (McCoy cells) with a trachoma strain (G17) of Chlamydia trachomatis has been developed. Persistently infected cultures were established by infecting McCoy cells with high multiplicities of chlamydiae. After the first cycle of chlamydial replication, the host cells multiplied more rapidly than the parasites, so that the fraction of inclusion-bearing cells declined to less than 1%. However, after 100 days, the proportion of inclusion-bearing cells rose dramatically, and the cultures alternated between periods of massive host cell destruction by chlamydiae and periods of host cell proliferation. This cycle continued indefinitely as host cell and parasite densities fluctuated periodically. The chlamydiae in the cycling populations were reidentified as the original serotype. No changes in either host cell susceptibility or chlamydial invasiveness were observed in hosts and parasites recovered from persistently infected populations. All evidence suggests that the parasite maintained itself in McCoy cell populations by cell-to-cell transfer and that an equilibrium between host and parasite multiplication was achieved when the persistently infected cultures fluctuated between periods of host cell destruction and proliferation.     

The role of high mobility group box 1 (HMGB-1) in the diabetic retinopathy inflammation and apoptosis

Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is one of the most common complications of the late phase diabetes, and also a common cause of blindness. High mobility group box 1 (HMGB-1) is considered to be an inflammatory mediator in the late phase that promotes inflammation and neovascularization in diabetes. Therefore, this paper discussed the role of HMGB-1 in diabetic retinopathy inflammation and neovascularization. 96 adult SD rats were randomly divided into control and diabetes group. The diabetic rat model was established by intraperitoneal injection of streptomycin (0.1 mol/L). Western blot was applied to determine HMGB-1 and its receptor RAGE and TLR2 protein expression in the serum. TUNEL was used to detect retinal apoptosis. Immunofluorescence was performed to test HMGB1 protein expression in retina. HBGM-1 and RAGE expression in diabetic rat retina was significantly higher than the control (P < 0.05), while TLR2 expression was lower (P < 0.05). TUNEL detection showed that diabetic rat retinal cells presented obviously higher apoptosis rate (P < 0.05). Immunofluorescence test revealed that HMGB1 largely expressed in the diabetic rat retinal cells (P < 0.05). HMGB1 may involve in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy by binding with RAGE receptor to accelerate rat retinal cells apoptosis.     

Intracellular interleukin-1alpha mediates interleukin-8 production induced by Chlamydia trachomatis infection via a mechanism independent of type I interleukin-1 receptor

Chlamydia trachomatis infection induces a wide array of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which may contribute to chlamydia-induced pathologies. However, the precise mechanisms by which Chlamydia induces cytokines remain unclear. Here we demonstrate that the proinflammatory cytokine interleukin-1α (IL-1α) plays an essential role in chlamydial induction of the chemokine IL-8. Cells deficient in IL-1α expression or IL-1α-competent cells treated with IL-1α-specific small interfering RNA failed to produce IL-8 in response to chlamydial infection. However, neutralization of extracellular IL-1α or blockade of or deficiency in type I IL-1 receptor (IL-1RI) signaling did not affect chlamydial induction of IL-8 in cells capable of producing IL-1α. These results suggest that IL-1α can mediate the chlamydial induction of IL-8 via an intracellular mechanism independent of IL-1RI, especially during the early stage of the infection cycle. This conclusion is further supported by the observations that expression of a transgene-encoded full-length IL-1α fusion protein in the nuclei enhanced IL-8 production and that nuclear localization of chlamydia-induced precursor IL-1α correlated with chlamydial induction of IL-8. Thus, we have identified a novel mechanism for chlamydial induction of the chemokine IL-8.     

Colon cancer cell-derived high mobility group 1/amphoterin induces growth inhibition and apoptosis in macrophages

High mobility group (HMGB)1/amphoterin is a multifunctional cytokine involved in invasion and metastasis of cancer and in inflammation. To investigate HMGB1/amphoterin effects on macrophages, U937 human monocytic leukemia cells and rat peritoneal and human alveolar macrophages were examined. U937 cells expressed low levels of an HMGB1/amphoterin receptor, receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE), whereas RAGE production was induced in differentiated phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)-U937 cells. Treatment with cultured medium of HMGB1/amphoterin-secreting WiDr human colon cancer cells showed growth inhibition of both U937 and PMA-U937 cells and apoptosis in PMA-U937 cells. The number of PMA-U937 cells was markedly decreased by co-culture with WiDr cells exposed to HMGB1/amphoterin sense S-oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) in spheroids or monolayers. In contrast, PMA-U937 cells co-cultured with WiDr cells exposed to HMGB1/amphoterin anti-sense S-ODN were preserved in number. PMA-U937 cells exposed to RAGE anti-sense S-ODN were insensitive to WiDr-cultured medium. Recombinant human HMGB1/amphoterin induced growth inhibition in thioglycollate-induced rat peritoneal macrophages, PMA-U937 cells, and human alveolar macrophages, an effect that was abrogated by absorption with anti-HMGB1 antibody. Phosphorylation of JNK and Rac1 was induced in PMA-U937 cells treated with HMGB1/amphoterin. These results suggest that HMGB1/amphoterin induces growth inhibition and apoptosis in macrophages through RAGE intracellular signaling pathway.     

沙眼衣原体感染对HeLa细胞MHCⅠ、Ⅱ类分子表达的影响

目的　探讨沙眼衣原体 (Chlamydiatrachomatis ,Ct)K型感染对HeLa细胞MHCⅠ、Ⅱ类分子表达的影响。方法　用免疫荧光法和流式细胞术等方法 ,对Ct感染和未感染的HeLa细胞MHCⅠ类分子表达水平和IFN γ诱导的HeLa细胞MHCⅡ类分子表达水平进行检测 ,同时对IL 10抗体的影响也作了研究。结果　Ct感染细胞MHCⅠ类分子表达水平和IFN γ诱导的感染细胞MHCⅡ类分子表达水平 ,随Ct感染剂量增加和感染时间延长而下降 ,与正常未感染细胞比较上述差异均具有统计学意义 (P <0 .0 1)。IL 10抗体能部分抑制感染细胞MHCⅠ类分子表达下调 ,但对IFN γ诱导的感染细胞MHCⅡ类分子表达下调无显著影响。结论　Ct感染可下调感染细胞MHCⅠ类分子和IFN γ诱导的细胞MHCⅡ类分子表达水平 ,这可能是造成衣原体持续感染的重要原因。感染过程中分泌的IL 10在下调感染细胞MHCⅠ类分子表达过程中起一定作用 ,而对IFN γ诱导的感染细胞MHCⅡ类分子表达水平下调无显著性影响     

高迁移率族蛋白1对内毒素急性肺损伤大鼠中性粒细胞凋亡改变的影响

目的 观察体外高迁移率族蛋白1（HMGB1）对内毒素急性肺损伤（ALI）大鼠中性粒细胞（PMN）凋亡改变的影响，以探讨HMGB1在ALI发病机制中的作用。方法 脂多糖注射复制大鼠急性肺损伤模型，在LPS致伤后不同时相点（有或无正丁酸钠干预时）获取肺组织、外周血中性粒细胞（PMN）、支气管肺泡灌洗液（BALF）。RT-PCR检测肺组织HMGB1 mRNA表达，流式细胞术（FCM）、Giemsa染色及TUNEL法检测PMN的凋亡改变。结果 与对照组比较，LPS急性肺损伤大鼠PMN凋亡率逐渐减低，鼠BALF中PMN凋亡开始时间及无存活细胞时间明显延长；LPS致伤后6-24h肺组织HMGB1 mRNA表达明显增高。正丁酸钠（SB）处理组动物肺组织于伤后6、12h肺组织HMGB1 mRNA表达均显著抑制，与LPS组比较，差异有显著性意义（P〈0．05）；形态学检查显示，LPS致伤后大鼠肺组织出现水肿及明显的病理变化，SB干预可减轻肺损伤的严重程度。致伤后肺损伤程度与肺组织HMGB1表达水平及PMN凋亡改变有关。结论 LPS致伤后，鼠肺HMGB1 mRNA高表达发生较晚，但持续较长时间；SB处理可削弱LPS诱导的PMN凋亡延迟及抑制，下调肺组织HMGB1 mRNA表达。HMGB1可能参与内毒素急性肺损伤时PMN的凋亡延迟及抑制效应。     

Effect of high mobility group box 1 on Toll-like receptor 9 in B cells in myeloperoxidase-ANCA-associated vasculitis

Abstract

High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) played pathogenic role in antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis (AAV). Recent findings demonstrated that Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) was involved in B cell tolerance breaking of autoimmune disease, including AAV. Here, we investigated the effect of HMGB1 on TLR9 in B cells of AAV. In the present work, patients with myeloperoxidase (MPO)-AAV in active stage were recruited. Intracellular TLR9 expression in various B cell subpopulations of the whole blood was detected by flow cytometry and the correlation with clinical data was analysed. Our results showed that intracellular TLR9 expression in B cells, memory B cells and plasmablasts correlated with erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) or C-reactive protein (CRP). In particular, TLR9 expression in plasma cells correlated with ESR, CRP, serum creatinine, eGFR, and Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score. To further explore the effect of HMGB1 on B cell, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) from AAV patients were isolated. After stimulated with HMGB1, TLR9 expression in various B cell subpopulations and proliferation ratio of live B cells were analysed by flow cytometry. We found that TLR9 expression in plasma cells and the proliferation ratio of live B cells by HMGB1 stimulation were significantly upregulated compared with the control group. Therefore, TLR9 expression in plasma cells was associated with disease activity of MPO-AAV. HMGB1 could enhance TLR9 expression in plasma cells and B cell proliferation. These indicated a role of HMGB1 on TLR9 in B cells in MPO-AAV, which would provide potential clues for intervention strategies.     

高迁移率族蛋白1对大鼠纤维母细胞样滑膜细胞增殖周期的调控作用

目的:探讨高迁移率族蛋白(HMGB)1对滑膜细胞增殖周期的调控作用及可能机制。方法:将常规培养大鼠滑膜细胞株RSC364细胞随机分为正常对照组和10μg/LHMGB1刺激组,分别培养6、12和24小时,流式细胞术检测细胞周期分布和细胞中Cyclin D1/CDK4蛋白表达;免疫细胞化学检测PCNA和p21蛋白表达。结果:HMGB1作用至12和24小时,处于G0/G1期的细胞逐渐减少,G2/M期细胞增多,增殖指数升高分别为(68.00±1.42)和(69.61±5.86),与正常对照组(53.83±4.95)和6小时组(55.98±6.34)相比差异具有统计学意义(P0.01或0.05)。PCNA和p21蛋白阳性信号均表达于滑膜细胞核内,随着作用时间延长,PCNA蛋白表达增强,阳性细胞数目逐渐增多,而p21蛋白表达减低,阳性细胞数目逐渐下降。HMGB1作用6～24小时CyclinD1蛋白相对表达量逐渐增加,分别为(1.42±0.02)、(1.65±0.03)和(1.67±0.01),与正常对照组(1.00±0.01)相比差异具有显著统计学意义(P0.01),CDK4蛋白表达量也显著增加分别为(1.26±0.23)、(1.29±0.07)和(1.26±0.03),与正常对照组(1.00±0.0.25)相比差异具有显著统计学意义(P0.01),但随着刺激时间的延长,其表达量无明显变化。结论:HMGB1可能通过上调细胞周期调控蛋白CyclinD1/CDK4的表达,下调细胞周期抑制剂p21的表达,促进滑膜细胞的增殖和分化。     

高迁移率族蛋白B1基因的克隆及其与神经管发育的相关关系

目的:构建神经管cDNA文库,寻找神经管发育相关基因。方法:提取E8.5 d金黄地鼠神经管总RNA;SMART技术构建神经管cDNA噬菌体表达文库;重组噬菌体PCR鉴定。将出现频率很高的重组噬菌斑,经质粒转化、酶切鉴定和DNA序列分析,证实为高迁移率族蛋白B1基因(HMGB1)。将HMGB1 cDNA片段回收、纯化,制备探针;Northern杂交检测不同发育阶段神经管中HMGB1 mRNA的表达变化。结果:构建的HMGB1cDNA片段含有完整的cDNA序列。Northern杂交显示:随胚胎发育,神经管HMGB1 mRNA表达量逐渐增加,E10 d增加最为明显,E12 d仍处于较高水平;而8.5 d高温致畸胚神经管,HMGB1 mRNA表达量较对照组明显减少。结论:HMGB1基因的表达与神经管发育及高温致神经管畸形的发生密切相关。     

人高迁移率族蛋白B1原核表达及其高亲和噬菌体融合肽的筛选

目的 构建谷胱甘肽巯基转移酶（GST）标记的人高迁移率族蛋白B1（HMGB1）融合蛋白表达载体并在原核细胞中表达.应用噬菌体展示技术筛选HMGB1的高亲和肽.方法 用RT-PCR方法扩增HMGB1 cDNA,构建于原核表达载体pGEX4T-1并转化大肠杆菌,以异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷（IPTG）诱导GST-HMGB1蛋白表达;Ni^2＋-NTA和多粘菌素B亲和层析柱进行纯化重组HMGB1蛋白.以重组HMGB1蛋白为靶分子,进行4轮噬菌体展示环七肽库的筛选,从第4轮洗脱物中随机挑选20个单克隆噬菌体扩增后进行ELISA鉴定,用酶标仪测定450 nm处的吸光度值.对获得的阳性单克隆噬菌体分别进行扩增、纯化,并对DNA测序,以确定插入七肽的氨基酸序列.结果 RT-PCR扩增HMGB1 cDNA大小约648 bp,成功构建了pGEX4T-1-HMGB1重组质粒并纯化了HMGB1蛋白,其相对分子质量为65000.经过4轮筛选后,噬菌体富集了74倍（第4轮与第1轮回收量分别为5.2×10^8、7.0×10^6 pfu）,随机挑取的20个噬菌体克隆中9个可与HMGB1结合,测序发现其中的6个序列一致,均为DYFVSSV.结论 筛选到1个可与HMGB1高亲和结合的噬菌体展示七肽,其对HMGB1活性的拮抗效应有待进一步阐明.     

人高迁移率族蛋白B1原核表达及其高亲和噬菌体融合肽的筛选

目的 构建谷胱甘肽巯基转移酶(GST)标记的人高迁移率族蛋白B1(HMGB1)融合蛋白表达载体并在原核细胞中表达.应用噬菌体展示技术筛选HMGB1的高亲和肽.方法 用RT-PCR方法扩增HMGB1 cDNA,构建于原核表达载体pGEX4T-1并转化大肠杆菌,以异丙基-β-D-硫代半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导GST-HMGB1蛋白表达;Ni2+-NTA和多粘菌素B亲和层析柱进行纯化重组HMGB1蛋白.以重组HMGB1蛋白为靶分子,进行4轮噬菌体展示环七肽库的筛选,从第4轮洗脱物中随机挑选20个单克隆噬菌体扩增后进行ELISA鉴定,用酶标仪测定450 nm处的吸光度值.对获得的阳性单克隆噬菌体分别进行扩增、纯化,并对DNA测序,以确定插入七肽的氨基酸序列.结果 RT-PCR扩增HMGB1 cDNA大小约648 bp,成功构建了pGEX4T-1-HMGB1重组质粒并纯化了HMGB1蛋白,其相对分子质量为65000.经过4轮筛选后,噬菌体富集了74倍(第4轮与第1轮回收量分别为5.2×108、7.0×106 pfu),随机挑取的20个噬菌体克隆中9个可与HMGB1结合,测序发现其中的6个序列一致,均为DYFVSSV.结论 筛选到1个可与HMGB1高亲和结合的噬菌体展示七肽,其对HMGB1活性的拮抗效应有待进一步阐明.