Electrodermal activity, hormonal levels and subjective experience during the menstrual cycle

Changes in electrodermal activity and subjective experience were studied during the menstrual cycle. Sixty-two women, grouped into menstrual, follicular, ovulatory, luteal and premenstrual phases, were presented with 15, 4-s, 80-dB, 1000-Hz tones. Psychological states and psychosomatic symptoms were tested with Spielberger's State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and a self-report questionnaire. Two estimation procedures of the hormonal phases were used: one based on the onset of menses and cycle length, and another on the basal body temperature. Subjects were grouped into low or high levels of luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone and progesterone. There were significant increases in nonspecific response frequency, skin conductance response magnitude, skin conductance level, and a decrease in habituation rate at the ovulatory phase in comparison with luteal and premenstrual phases. No changes between the cycle phases were found in subjective experience. High follicle-stimulating hormone levels were associated with slower habituation rates and low trait-anxiety. The relationship between arousal changes and subjective experience in menstrual cycle is discussed.     

Sleep patterns related to menstrual cycle phase and premenstrual affective symptoms

An ovulatory menstrual cycle is characterized by fluctuating levels of progesterone. Progesterone, a gonadal hormone known for its soporific and thermogenic effects, is present in negligible levels prior to ovulation and in high levels after ovulation. To describe and compare sleep patterns in relation to ovulatory cycles and premenstrual mood state, sleep was monitored in healthy women at two phases of the menstrual cycle. Results indicated that rapid-eye-movement (REM) latency was significantly shorter during the postovulatory (luteal) phase compared to the preovulatory (follicular) phase, but there was no significant difference in latency to sleep onset or the percentage of REM sleep. While there were no menstrual cycle phase differences in the percentages of various sleep stages, the women with negative affect symptoms during the premenstruum demonstrated significantly less delta sleep during both menstrual cycle phases in comparison with the asymptomatic subjects.     

A prospective study of psychosocial stress and fertility in women

The objective of this study was to compare average stress levels during the month of conception to those of previous infertile months. We postulated that stress level during the actual month of conception would be lower than that during previous non-conception cycles. Thirteen normal women from the general community, who were attempting pregnancy, kept daily records of coital activity and basal body temperature, and twice a month completed self-administered questionnaires and provided a 12 h overnight urine sample. On average, women reported significantly more favourable mood states on standard psychometric tests, during the month of conception than during the previous non-conception cycles. In addition, they felt significantly less 'hassled' during the month of conception. However, mean urinary hormone excretion of adrenaline, noradrenaline and cortisol did not significantly differ between conception and non-conception cycles and there was little relationship between the psychological measures of mood state and excretion of adrenaline and cortisol. There was no evidence of increased coital frequency during the month of conception when mood states were improved, suggesting that stress effects on libido were unlikely to account for the findings. The results support the conclusion that psychosocial stress influences fertility in females but as yet mechanisms remain unclear.      

Heat stress, plasma concentrations of adrenaline, noradrenaline, 5-hydroxytryptamine and cortisol, mood state and cognitive performance.

The primary aims of this paper were to examine the effect of heat stress on working memory, choice reaction time and mood state, and to investigate the relationship between heat induced changes in plasma concentrations of selected neurotransmitters and hormones, and cognition. Heat stress resulted in a deterioration of performance on a central executive task (random movement generation) but not on verbal and spatial recall, and choice reaction time tasks. Perceptions of vigour decreased and fatigue increased following exposure to heat stress. Plasma concentrations of cortisol and 5-hydroxytryptamine significantly increased following exposure to heat. Regression analyses showed that percent body mass loss and change from baseline (Delta) concentrations of cortisol, post-exposure to heat, were significant predictors of Delta random movement generation and Delta fatigue. A secondary purpose was to examine the effect of recovery on cognition and mood. Following recovery, the performance of the central executive task was poorer than pre-treatment. Mood states, catecholamines and 5-hydroxytryptamine concentrations returned to pre-treatment values, but cortisol fell to a level significantly lower. Regression correlations showed that Delta adrenaline and Delta scores, post-recovery, on the central executive task were significantly correlated. Delta noradrenaline correlated significantly with Delta fatigue. It was concluded that heat stress results in deterioration in the performance of central executive tasks and perceptions of mood state, and that this can be predicted by changes in body mass loss and plasma concentrations of the hormones cortisol and adrenaline.     

Cardiovascular functioning during the menstrual cycle.

Variations in cardiovascular functioning during the 'normal' menstrual cycle have been little researched. Resting-blood pressures, resting-heart rate, rate-pressure product (RPP) and a derived index of fitness (Schneider Index) were monitored throughout natural, hormonally defined menstrual cycles. Volunteers were 26 women (20-48 years) who had regular (25-35 days) cycles. Their blood pressures and heart rate (at rest and according to Schneider's protocol) were measured at the same time daily (Monday-Friday) for 5 weeks. Daily, early morning-urine samples were assayed for sex hormones enabling accurate definition of cycle phase for each woman. Resting systolic-blood pressure was significantly higher in the ovulatory phase (P < 0.05) than in the follicular or luteal phases, but resting-diastolic pressures did not differ significantly between phases. Resting-heart rate was significantly higher in both ovulatory (P < 0.01) and luteal (P < 0.01) phases than in the menstrual and follicular phases. The Schneider Index was higher during the follicular phase than during the ovulatory (P < 0.005) or luteal (P < 0.01) phases, the RPP was higher during the ovulatory phase than during the bleeding (P < 0.05) and follicular (P < 0.005) phases. These findings provide a pattern of menstrual cycle-related variation in cardiovascular functioning that can be related to established actions of the ovarian steroids.     

The impact of the ovulatory cycle on cytokine production: evaluation of systemic, cervicovaginal, and salivary compartments.

To understand the impact of the menstrual cycle on immunologic parameters, we measured the level of cytokines and chemokines from plasma, cervicovaginal lavage (CVL), and saliva samples of 6 premenopausal women during the follicular and luteal phases of the ovulatory cycle. We demonstrate that the level of plasma interleukin-8 (IL-8) was 4-fold higher during the follicular phase than the luteal phase (p = 0.004), whereas plasma IL-1beta, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha (MIP-1alpha), and TNF receptor II (TNFR II) were not altered during the ovulatory cycle. In the vaginal compartment, as measured from CVL samples, the levels of IL-6 and IL-1beta were both 5-fold higher in the follicular than the luteal phase (p = 0.0002 and 0.03, respectively). Salivary cytokine and chemokine samples were similar when measured during the luteal and the follicular phases. Additional analysis of lymphocyte subsets for phenotypic and functional markers indicated that they were not influenced by the ovulatory cycle. Collectively, these data suggest that IL-6, IL-8, and IL-1beta are differentially regulated during the ovulatory cycle.     

Changes in serum concentrations of growth hormone, insulin, insulin- like growth factor and insulin-like growth factor-binding proteins 1 and 3 and urinary growth hormone excretion during the menstrual cycle

Few studies exist on the physiological changes in the concentrations of growth hormone (GH), insulin-like growth factors (IGF) and IGF-binding proteins (IGFBP) within the menstrual cycle, and some controversy remains. We therefore decided to study the impact of endogenous sex steroids on the GH-IGF-IGFBP axis during the ovulatory menstrual cycle in 10 healthy women (aged 18-40 years). Blood sampling and urinary collection was performed every morning at 0800 h for 32 consecutive days. Every second day the subjects were fasted overnight before blood sampling. Follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone (LH), oestradiol, progesterone, IGF-I, IGFBP-3, sex hormone-binding globulin, dihydroepiandrosterone sulphate and GH were determined in all samples, whereas insulin and IGFBP-1 were determined in fasted samples only. Serum IGF-I concentrations showed some fluctuation during the menstrual cycle, with significantly higher values in the luteal phase compared to the proliferative phase (P < 0.001). Mean individual variation in IGF-I concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle was 13.2% (SD 4.3; range 0.1-18.3%). There were no cyclic changes in IGFBP-3 serum concentrations and no differences in IGFBP-3 concentrations between the luteal and the proliferative phases. Mean individual variation in IGFBP- 3 concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle was 8.8% (SD 2.7; range 3.2-14.1). IGFBP-1 concentrations were inversely associated with insulin concentrations, and showed a significant pre-ovulatory increase that returned to baseline at the day of the LH surge. Fasting insulin concentrations showed large fluctuations throughout the menstrual cycle without any distinct cyclic pattern. No cyclic changes in urinary GH excretion during menstrual cycle were detected. We conclude that, although IGF-I concentrations are dependent on the phase of the menstrual cycle, the variation in IGF-I concentrations throughout the menstrual cycle is relatively small. Therefore, the menstrual cycle does not need to be considered when evaluating IGF-I or IGFBP-3 serum values in women suspected to have GH deficiency.      

Positive relationship between the catecholaminergic turnover and the DST results in depression

In the past some workers have reported positive relationships between indices of noradrenaline activity and measures of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-axis function. In order to investigate these relations, the authors measured noradrenaline, adrenaline and vanillylmandelic acid (VMA) in 24 h urine samples of 72 depressed females. Serum adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol concentrations were determined before and after administration of 1 mg of dexamethasone. Cortisol non-suppressors exhibited a significantly higher noradrenaline, adrenaline and VMA excretion as compared to cortisol suppressors. We determined significantly positive correlations between the postdexamethasone cortisol values and the excretion rates of noradrenaline and VMA. These indices of noradrenaline activity correlated neither with the baseline cortisol and ACTH nor with the postdexamethasone ACTH values.     

Cardiovascular,hormonal, and emotional responses to the TSST in relation to sex and menstrual cycle phase

The prevalence of stress disorders differs between men and women. An understanding of how men and women vary in acute stress responses may help to understand these sex differences. We compared responses to the TSST and a control task in healthy men (N=28) and women tested in two phases (Follicular N=29, Luteal N=23) of the menstrual cycle. Men exhibited greater cortisol responses to stress than women in either phase. Luteal women exhibited the greatest subjective and allopregnanolone responses to stress, whereas follicular women exhibited blunted noradrenaline responses. Partial correlations controlling for group differences revealed that individuals who were most sensitive to the subjective effects of stress exhibited the largest salivary cortisol, noradrenaline, and allopregnanolone responses and the smallest progesterone responses to stress. We discuss our findings in the context of sex differences in the prevalence of stress‐linked disorders.     

Symptom fluctuation in bulimia nervosa: relation to menstrual-cycle phase and cortisol levels

BACKGROUND: Individuals with bulimia nervosa report significant symptom fluctuation, and some studies have suggested a premenstrual exacerbation of binge frequency. The purpose of this study is to explore the hormonal correlates of symptom fluctuation in bulimia nervosa. METHOD: For five consecutive weeks (one full menstrual cycle), eight women with bulimia nervosa and eight non-eating-disordered control women collected morning saliva samples and recorded several mood characteristics; the bulimic women also recorded binge and purge episodes. Subsequently, salivary cortisol and androgen levels were determined by radioimmunoassay. RESULTS: Bulimic symptoms were exacerbated in both the mid-luteal and premenstrual phases, when compared with the follicular and ovulatory phases (F(3,21) = 3.76, P = 0.026; contrast analysis t(7) = 3.47, P < 0.01). Fluctuation in cortisol was closely correlated with fluctuation of bulimic symptoms, with elevatedcortisol secretion following symptom exacerbation (r(24) = 0.64, P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Bulimic symptom fluctuation appears to be related to two hormonal phenomena--phase of the menstrual cycle and cortisol secretion--with menstrual-cycle phase influencing bulimic symptom severity, and bulimic symptom severity effecting increases in cortisol secretion. Improved understanding of the hormonal causes and consequences of symptom fluctuation may lead to improved psychological and pharmacological treatments for bulimia nervosa.     

Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. II. Hormonal and immunological responses.

Two groups of beagles, accustomed to spacious group housing, were subjected to social and spatial restriction and studied for manifestations of chronic stress with a time interval of 7 weeks between the groups. The change from outside group housing (the control period) to individual housing in small indoor kennels resulted in sustained decreases in urinary adrenaline/creatinine and noradrenaline/creatinine ratios for the total group. Urinary dopamine/creatinine and noradrenaline/adrenaline ratios were statistically unaffected. Socially and spatially restricted dogs that had experienced pleasant weather during the control period showed (a) increased salivary and urinary cortisol concentrations, (b) a diminished responsiveness of the pituitary-adrenal axis to a sudden sound blast or exogenous CRH, (c) intact plasma ACTH and cortisol suppressions after dexamethasone administration, and (d) increased concanavalin A induced lymphocyte proliferations. When social and spatial restriction was preceded by a control period during which the weather was bad, these physiological responses were either augmented (lymphocyte proliferation), or offset (salivary and urinary cortisol), or directed oppositely (CRH-induced ACTH and cortisol responses). Together with the previously presented behavioral observations, these data suggest that bad weather conditions during spacious outdoor group housing induced early stress that attenuated the negative appraisal of the subsequent period of social and spatial restriction. In comparison to male dogs, bitches showed increased HPA responses to a sound blast or exogenous CRH. Their increased attenuations of the ACTH and cortisol responses to CRH after 5 weeks of restricted housing indicates that bitches are not only more susceptible to acute stress, but also to chronic housing stress. It is concluded that the quality of circumstances preceding a period of affected well-being determines the magnitude and even the direction of the behavioral and physiological stress responses. Basal salivary and urinary cortisol measurements are useful for the assessment of chronic stress, and of poor welfare in dogs. The use of urinary catecholamine, peripheral leucocyte, and lymphocyte proliferation measures requires further investigation.     

Catecholamine and cortisol reaction to childbirth

One way to study the stressfulness of childbirth is to examine the output of stress hormones. In this study, urinary catecholamines and salivary cortisol from 50 primiparous women were collected for 1 day during gestational weeks 37 to 39, hourly during labor and delivery, and 2 hr and 2 days postpartum. All three stress hormones increased statistically significantly from pregnancy to labor. The increase in adrenaline and cortisol was more than 500%, and the increase in noradrenaline was about 50%. After labor, the output decreased but not statistically significantly below the levels during late pregnancy. Hormone levels during late pregnancy, during labor and delivery, and during the period postpartum mostly did not correlate systematically. However, noradrenaline and adrenaline, as well as adrenaline and cortisol, were positively correlated during labor. After administration of epidural analgesia, there was a moderate but significant decrease in noradrenaline and adrenaline, whereas cortisol did not change. In conclusion, the results of this study support the assumption that childbirth is a very stressful event and that the stress responses vary considerably among women. The substantial increase of adrenaline and cortisol compared with noradrenaline indicates that mental stress is more dominant than physical stress during labor. This study was fundedbyresearch grants from the Swedish Foundation for Health Care Sciences and Allergy Research, and The Bank of Sweden Tercentenary Foundation.     

Strength training effects on urinary steroid profile across the menstrual cycle in healthy women

Some studies suggest that performing strength training may cause alterations on the hypothalamic pituitary axis, resulting in steroid hormone variations. Intense training has been associated to slow the concentrations of estrogens and progesterone in women. The main purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of strength training on the urinary steroid concentrations across the menstrual cycle phases. Twenty healthy women, regularly menstruating and not using pharmacologic contraceptives, performed a strength training during 8 weeks. Participants worked out 3 sets × 10 repetitions, with 2 min recovery time between sets, at 70–75 % of one maximum strength repetition. Urine samples were taken in three different phases of the menstrual cycle (menstrual, follicular and luteal) and they were collected both before and after training. Testosterone, DHEA, cortisol, cortisone, estradiol and progesterone concentrations were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results showed a significant decline after training in the urinary excretion of estradiol, during the menstrual and follicular phase, and progesterone, during the menstrual and luteal phase. No significant difference was observed for other steroid hormones. These data demonstrated that strength training can play an important role in the estrogen and progesterone metabolism in women, decreasing their levels across the menstrual cycle.     

Psychophysiological and neuroendocrine responses to laboratory stressors in women: Implications of menstrual cycle phase and stressor type

This study assessed stressor and menstrual phase effects on psychophysiological and neuroendocrine responses to laboratory stressors in freely cycling women (N = 78, ages 18-45). Participants performed counterbalanced stressors [Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT) or cold pressor test (CP)] during their follicular and luteal menstrual cycle phases between 1:00 and 3:00 p.m. to control for cortisol rhythm. Participants rested 30-min, performed the stressor, and then recovered 30-min while electrocardiography continuously monitored heart rate (HR). Systolic (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP), salivary cortisol, and state anxiety were assessed at timed intervals. HR, SBP, and cortisol varied more over the course of luteal than follicular phase testing. A three-way interaction revealed state anxiety reactivity was greater with the PASAT during the follicular phase. DBP showed equal and persistent reactivity with both stressors during both cycle phases. Results extend the stressor-specific HPAA hypothesis and have important methodological implications for women's biopsychology research.     

Effects of the menstrual cycle on mood, neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function in healthy premenopausal women

BACKGROUND: Neurocognitive functioning may be impaired in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle due to associated changes in hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis function. This study examines the relationship between changes in neurocognition and HPA axis function in different phases of the menstrual cycle. METHOD: Fifteen female volunteers, free from psychiatric history and hormonal medication were tested twice, during mid-follicular and late-luteal phases in a randomized, crossover design. Mood, neurocognitive function, and basal cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) were profiled. RESULTS: Relative to the follicular phase, verbal fluency was impaired in the luteal phase and reaction times speeded on a continuous performance task, without affecting overall accuracy. 'Hedonic' scores on the UWIST-MACL scale were decreased in the luteal phase. There was also evidence of changes in the function of the HPA axis, with 24 h urinary cortisol concentrations and salivary DHEA levels being significantly lower during the luteal phase. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that luteal phase HPA axis function is lower than in the follicular phase in premenopausal healthy women. This putative biological difference may be important for our understanding of the aetiopathogenesis of menstrually related mood change and neurocognitive disturbance.     

Influences of the Normal Menstrual Cycle on Physiologic Functioning During Behavioral Stress

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of the normal menstrual cycle on lipoprotein, cardiovascular, and neuroendocrine stress responses. Fifteen normally-cycling, healthy women participated in a series of behavioral tasks during the menstrual, follicular, and luteal phases of their menstrual cycle. These women had established menstrual cycle regularity for the three months prior to enrollment in this study, were free from menstrual cycle disturbances, biochemically confirmed that they ovulated, and displayed appropriate patterns of reproductive hormone fluctuations during the study period. Heart rate, blood pressure, low density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and total cholesterol all demonstrated significant elevations from baseline levels during tasks. No differences in the magnitude of stress responses during the three menstrual cycle phases were noted for any physiological variable. We conclude that the hormonal fluctuations that occur in healthy, normally-cycling women during the menstrual cycle do not influence the stress responses that were investigated here. Significant influences of menstrual cycle phase previously reported in the literature, albeit not in a consistent direction, may have been due to the recruitment of women with menstrual cycle irregularities, and to the failure to adequately verify menstrual cycle phase.     

Electrodermal activity in menstrual cycle phases: a comparison of within- and between-subjects designs

Electrodermal activity (EDA) changes in menstrual cycle were studied in two experiments. In both experiments subjects were presented with 16 80-dB tones; 15 tones were 4 s, 1000 Hz, and the last one - change trial - was a 6-s, 3000-Hz tone. In Expt. 1, a within-subjects design was employed, and 15 women were studied throughout a complete menstrual cycle. No significant changes in EDA associated with menstrual cycle phases were found, but significant decreases in electrodermal responsiveness during experimental sessions in EDA parameters were observed. In Expt. 2, with a between-subjects design, 56 women were divided in menstrual (n = 10), follicular (n = 12), ovulatory (n = 14), luteal (n = 13) and premenstrual (n = 7) groups, according to the cycle phase in which the subject was at the time of recording. At the ovulatory phase there were significant increases in skin conductance response (SCR) magnitude, skin conductance level, SCR habituation rate, and SCR amplitude to stimulus change, in relation to menstrual, luteal, and premenstrual phases. The discrepancies in the EDA data coming from the two experiments may be explained by practice effects appearing in Expt. 1.     

Changes in peak expiratory flow and respiratory strength during the menstrual cycle

This study evaluated the spirometry and respiratory static pressures in 17 young women, twice a week for three successive ovulatory menstrual cycles to determine if such variables changed across the menstrual, follicular, periovulatory, early-to-mid luteal and late luteal phases. The factors phases of menstrual cycle and individual cycles had no significant effect on the spirometry variables except for peak expiratory flow (PEF) and respiratory static pressures. Significant weak positive correlations were found between the progesterone:estradiol ratio and PEF and between estrogen and tidal volume (r = 0.37), inspiratory time (r = 0.22), expiratory time (r = 0.19), maximal inspiratory pressure (r = 0.25) and maximal expiratory pressure (r = 0.20) and for progesterone and maximal inspiratory pressure (r = 0.32) during the early-to-mid luteal phase. Although most parameters of the spirometry results did not change during the menstrual cycle, the correlations observed between sexual hormones and respiratory control variables suggest a positive influence of sexual female hormones controlling the thoracic pump muscles in the luteal phase.     

Endocrine responses and examination anxiety

Endocrine and psychological function (measuring both affect and attitudes to study) were studied in 38 male medical students 4 weeks and 1-2 h before a major examination. Anxiety (or tension) and emotionality increased just before the examination, as did the 'denial' subscale of a 'coping' questionnaire. Serum cortisol and prolactin increased; serum testosterone and LH were unchanged. Both urinary noradrenaline and adrenaline were elevated. Increased cortisol correlated with increased prolactin across subjects; so, too, did levels of urinary noradrenaline and adrenaline, but the two sets of endocrine responses were not correlated with each other. Several of the trait scales predicted the endocrine response to the examination. The 'lie' scale of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire correlated negatively with changes in both cortisol and prolactin, as did 'debilitating' anxiety, as defined by the Alpert-Haber scale. However, although there were no significant correlations between changes in hormone levels and those in any of the state scales, there was some relation between absolute hormone levels on the day of the examination. Measures of academic strategies or psychological responses to examinations do not predict the nature of the considerable hormonal response which occurs in this homogeneous set of high-achieving students.     

The aetiology of galactorrhoea in women with regular menstruation and normal prolactin levels.

Fourteen primary infertile women with expressible galactorrhoea associated with regular ovulatory cycles and normal basal prolactin levels (group A) were matched for age and weight with 14 infertile women with regular menstruation but no galactorrhoea (group B). Both groups showed equivalent increases in prolactin levels after stimulation with 200 micrograms thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) during the follicular and luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. Patients in group A had a greater increase in luteinizing hormone levels after 100 micrograms i.v. injection of a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone during the follicular phase (P less than 0.05). Following a 60 mg oral dose of buspirone hydrochloride on day 22 of the menstrual cycle, patients in group A had a greater increase in prolactin levels than patients in group B (P less than 0.01). This reflects hyper-responsive 5-hydroxytryptamine type 1A (5HT1A) receptors in group A patients and may explain the presence of galactorrhoea in these patients despite normal basal and post-TRH prolactin levels.