Principles for planning the teaching of health policy in an MPH program

This position paper is intended to suggest starting points for discussion regarding three issues: (A) background considerations related to development of an MPH health policy curriculum; (B) subjects to be considered for inclusion in MPH health policy curricula; (C) teaching methods.     

胚胎卵裂球损伤与继续发育对临床结果的影响

目的:比较玻璃化冷冻人卵裂期胚胎解冻后卵裂球损伤和继续发育对种植率以及临床妊娠率的影响。方法:选择在辅助生殖中心行181个卵裂期的FET周期进行研究。试验一根据复苏胚胎有无损伤和继续发育分为:A有损伤无发育,B无损伤有发育,C无损伤无发育,D有损伤有发育4组;试验二以B组无损伤有发育为基础,据移植继续发育胚胎数目分为:B1组1个胚胎继续发育,B2组2个胚胎继续发育,B3组3个胚胎继续发育,比较种植率以及临床妊娠率。结果:B组妊娠率、胚胎种植率高于A、C两组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);B3组妊娠率高于B1、B2两组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。但胚胎种植率、多胎妊娠率各组间差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。结论:解冻复苏胚胎继续培养后是否有进一步发育对预测临床妊娠较卵裂球是否损伤更有价值。     

Fatty Acids Profile and Cholesterol Contents of Three Brazilian Brycon Freshwater Fishes

This study was carried out to determine the cholesterol and fatty acids in muscle tissue (filet) of three in natura species of Brazilian fishes Brycon cephalus (matrinxã), B. microlepis (piraputanga) and B. orbignyanus (piracanjuba). The non-native fishes were collected in farms (cultured in pond and cages) near Maringá. The native species were collected in Cuiabá–Manso rivers (B. microlepis), and Paraná river (B. orbignyanus) that belong to the Platina hydrographic basin. Differences were observed (P<0.05) for moisture (70.48–74.06%), ashes (1.05–1.32) and crude protein (18.84–20.03%). The total lipids and cholesterol contents were found in the range of 2.49–7.94% and 40.99–52.79 mg/100 g, respectively. The native species presented the smallest values when compared to the non-native. All species presented oleic acid, C18:1 n -9, as predominant, (38.34–48.77%), followed by palmitic acid, C16:0, (21.90–26.57%) and stearic acid, C18:0, (8.32–15.66%). The largest amount of total n -3 polyunsaturated fatty acids was observed in the wild B. microlepis (3.61%) and B. orbignyanus (3.06%).     

早期干预对双胎婴儿智能发育的影响

目的　了解早期干预对双胎婴儿智能发育的影响。方法　将 2 0 0 0年 9月～ 2 0 0 2年 8月我院分娩的双(三 )胎婴儿 88例分为干预组 (A) 4 1例、对照组 (B) 4 7例 ,同期分娩的正常足月儿为正常对照组 (C) 5 1例。A组生后 1月开始接受早期干预训练 ,B、C组未接受早期干预 ,3组均在纠正年龄 1周岁进行中国婴幼儿智能发育测验 (CDCC)。结果　A组精神发育指数 (MDI)、运动发育指数 (PDI)高出B组 8 9和 7 0分 ,有显著性差异 (P <0 0 1,P <0 0 5 ) ,与C组比无显著性差异 ,而B组MDI、PDI较C组低 13 7和 8 4分 ,有显著性差异 (P <0 0 0 1,P <0 0 5 ) ;身高、头围在 3组间无显著性差异 ;A、B组体重无显著性差异 ,但 2组均落后于C组 (P <0 0 1,P <0 0 5 )。结论　早期干预可促进双胎婴儿智能发育。     

Vector competence studies with hard ticks and Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato spirochetes: A review

Use of emerging technology allowing for identification of genetic material from pathogens and endosymbionts in ticks collected from humans, domestic animals, wildlife, or the environment has resulted in an avalanche of new data on tick-microorganism associations. This rapidly growing stream of new information is a tremendous resource but also presents challenges, including how detection of pathogen genetic material in ticks should best be interpreted. There is a tendency in the more recent published literature to incorrectly use the term “vector” based on detection of pathogen genetic material from tick species not experimentally confirmed to serve as vectors of the pathogen in question. To serve as a vector of a horizontally maintained pathogen, such as a Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) Lyme borreliosis spirochete, the tick species in question must be capable of acquiring the pathogen while feeding in the larval or nymphal stage on an infectious host, maintaining it transstadially through the molt, and then transmitting the pathogen to a naïve host while feeding in the subsequent nymphal or adult stage. This review examines the experimental evidence for and against species of hard (ixodid) ticks from different genera to serve as vectors of B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes. Of the 18 Ixodes species ticks evaluated to date, 13 were experimentally confirmed as vectors of B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes. These studies focused primarily on the three major Lyme borreliosis agents: Borrelia burgdorferi sensu stricto, Borrelia afzelii, and Borrelia garinii. In striking contrast, none of 8 tick species from other genera (1 Amblyomma species, 5 Dermacentor species, and 2 Haemaphysalis species) evaluated to date were unequivocally experimentally confirmed as vectors of B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes. The strength of the evidence for or against each tick species to serve as a vector of B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes is discussed together with key knowledge gaps and research challenges.     

母体二十二碳六烯酸摄入水平与婴儿智能发育的关系

目的:探讨母体二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)摄入水平与婴儿智能发育的关系。方法:将孕妇分为A组(DHA平均摄入量<80mg/d)、B组(DHA平均摄入量80～159mg/d)、C组(DHA平均摄入量≥160mg/d)各20例,用毛细管气相色谱法测定3组孕妇于妊娠(20±2)周、(32±2)周、生后4周及足月时的静脉血及其新生儿脐血血清的DHA水平,对其婴儿于出生后3～4个月采用中国儿童发展中心(CDCC)制定的0～3岁婴幼儿智能发育量表进行评价,得出精神和运动发育指数(MDI和PDI)。结果:C组血清DHA含量高于B、A组,差异非常显著(P<0.01),C组MDI、PDI显著高于B、A组(P<0.01)。结论:母体二十二碳六烯酸(DHA)的摄入水平与婴儿智能发育有密切关系。     

Diversity of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato species in Ixodes ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) associated with cave-dwelling bats from Poland and Romania

Bats comprise one quarter of the world’s mammal species. In Europe, three nidicolous Ixodes tick species, I. vespertilionis, I. simplex and I. ariadnae are specifically associated with cave-dwelling bats, but their role as potential vectors of zoonotic agents is unknown. In this study, we used PCR-based methods to provide the first evidence of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (s.l.) infections in the three bat-associated tick species collected from ten bat species sampled in Poland and Romania. B. burgdorferi s.l. was detected in 24% (64/266) of tick samples, and 40.3% (60/149) of the bats carried infected chiropterophilic ticks.In Poland, the B. burgdorferi s.l. infection prevelance of I. ariadnae ticks parasitizing Myotis species was four times higher compared to the I. vespertilionis ticks derived from Rhinolophus hipposideros bats (44.4% vs.10%, respectively). The observed differences in infection prevalence could be explained by differences in reservoir potential between bat species. Bats from the genus Myotis and Miniopterus schreibersii carried more infected ticks than R. hipposideros regardless of the tick species. Analysis of the flaB gene sequences revealed seven species from the B. burgdorferi s.l. complex (B. afzelii, B. carolinensis, B. garinii, B. lanei, B. spielmanii, B. burgdorferi s.s., and B. valaisiana), of which five are considered as human pathogens. This large diversity of Borrelia species may reflect differences in susceptibility of chiropteran hosts and/or the tick vectors. Generally, mammal-associated B. burgdorferi s.l. species were more common than bird-associated species. Our study provides evidence for new enzootic transmission cycles of B. burgdorferi s.l. spirochetes involving nidicolous Ixodes tick species and cave-dwelling bats.     

Effects of Pb and Ni stress on oxidative stress parameters in three moss species

Antioxidative responses of the mosses Hypnum plumaeforme, Thuidium cymbifolium, and Brachythecium piligerum to short-term Pb and Ni stress were investigated. Both Pb and Ni treatment increased the formation of reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation, decreased superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) activities in H. plumaeforme and T. cymbifolium. However, SOD activity in B. piligerum was increased under 10 mM Pb stress and Ni increased CAT activity in B. piligerum under 1 mM Ni stress. Peroxidase (POX) activity in the three mosses was increased by Pb and Ni exposure, indicating that POX plays an important role in preventing heavy metal-induced oxidative stress. The accumulation of O₂⁻ and H₂O₂ in mosses is related to the decline in SOD and CAT activities. B. piligerum is the most sensitive and T. cymbifolium is the most tolerant species to Pb and Ni stress among the three bryophytes.     

Cockroaches as potential vectors of nosocomial infections.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the possible role of cockroaches in the epidemiology of nosocomial infections. DESIGN: Epidemiologic investigation of bacteria and fungi in cockroaches and evaluation of the antibiotic resistance of the bacteria isolated from the insects. SETTING: Ninety hospitals in Kaohsiung City and Kaohsiung County in Taiwan. METHODS: Cockroaches were collected in clinical and nonclinical areas and microorganisms were isolated from their external surface and alimentary tract. The susceptibilities of Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus species, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, Serratia marcescens, and Proteus species to 17 antibiotics were tested. RESULTS: Cockroach infestation was found in 46.7% of the hospitals studied. Two hundred three cockroaches were collected (139 Periplaneta americana and 64 Blattella germanica). Periplaneta americana was found more often in nonclinical areas (64.5%) and B. germanica in clinical areas (78.1%). There was no statistically significant difference between Periplaneta americana (98.6%) and B. germanica (96.9%) regarding overall isolation rate (P > .05). However, 33 species of bacteria and 16 species of fungi were isolated from Periplaneta americana and only 23 and 12, respectively, from B. germanica. Resistance to ampicillin (13.7% to 100%), chloramphenicol (14.3% to 71.4%), tetracycline (14.3% to 73.3%), and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (14.3% to 57.1%) was found in two gram-positive and five gram-negative bacteria. CONCLUSION: Because cockroach infestation occurred in more than 40% of the hospitals and nearly all of the cockroaches harbored bacteria with multidrug resistance and fungi, cockroaches may play a potential role in the epidemiology of nosocomial infections in those hospitals.     

Anopheles culicifacies: siblings species composition and its relationship to malaria incidence

Entomological and epidemiological surveys in May, August and November 1985 and March 1986 were conducted in villages in Bulandshahr, a western district in Uttar Pradesh and in three eastern districts, Jaunpur, Ballia and Saran. In Bulandshahr, Anopheles culicifacies sibling species A and B were found, with a predominance of species A. Both Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum were present and the malaria incidence remained high (SPR, 6-50%) indicating an active transmission. In contrast, in three eastern districts predominance of species B with an occasional occurrence of species A was observed. Malaria cases were almost absent in Ballia and Saran and in Jaunpur 10.3% slide positivity rate was observed in May but in later surveys cases were considerably lower (SPR, 0.5-2.9%) indicating the absence of indigenous transmission. In the eastern districts, malaria parasites are regularly brought in from endemic areas by the migrant labor population. Although An. culicifacies s.l. occurs in both the areas, the difference in malaria incidence appears to be due to the difference in the composition of the sibling species which is, the predominant presence of species A in the western district and its absence in eastern districts. This indicates that species A is responsible for active malaria transmission while species B is not.     

Isolation and determination of lipophilic mycochemicals from a New Zealand edible native mushroom Hericium novae-zealandiae

Hericium novae-zealandiae is a native mushroom consumed by indigenous Māori people in New Zealand. The lipophilic mycochemicals of the mushroom were isolated using a normal column chromatography combined with a preparative HPLC. Structural characterisation based on spectroscopic methods, namely UV, MS, NMR and single crystal XRD have identified three lipophilic compounds as hericene B (a compound unique to Hericium), ergosterol and ergosterol peroxide. Following this, an HPLC-DAD method was developed and validated to quantify the hericene B and ergosterol. The method showed excellent selectivity, linearity, precision, accuracy and robustness. The content of hericene B was determined as 28.53 mg/g by dry weight of H. novae-zealandiae (approximately 3%). This discovery indicates the potential utilisation of H. novae-zealandiae as a natural source of hericene B. Current research revealed for the first time, the lipophilic constituents of H. novae-zealandiae and the method development for quantification of hericene B in the above species.     

环境污染对儿童身心发育影响的调查研究

选择了昆明西郊某大型冶炼厂周围不同距离的二所小学及一所对照小学１￣３年级２６２名学生进行了调查。结果表明：１、Ａ、Ｂ小学所在地大气、稻谷中铅、镉、砷含量高于Ｃ小学（对照），有显著差异。２、学生头发中铅、镉、砷含量Ａ、Ｂ小学高于Ｃ小学。３、身高、体重、胸围、肺活量的发育以距冶炼厂最近的Ａ小学最差，其次是Ｂ小学。身体发育匀称主工比较，Ａ小学匀称体型少，不匀称多，在不匀称体型中粗壮型以Ａ小学最多。４、智     

Molecular and physiological characterization of the chitin synthase B gene isolated from Culex pipiens pallens (Diptera: Culicidae)

Human schistosomiasis is the second most important tropical disease and occurs in two forms in Africa (intestinal and urogenital) caused by the digenetic trematodes Schistosoma mansoni and Schistosoma haematobium, respectively. A proposed recent shift of schistosomiasis above a previously established altitudinal threshold of 1400 m above sea level in western Ugandan crater lakes has triggered more research interest there. Based on extensive field sampling in western Uganda and beyond and employing an approach using sequences of the mitochondrial barcoding gene cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (cox1) this study aims were: (i) identification and establishment of the phylogenetic affinities of Bulinus species as potential hosts for Schistosoma spp.; (ii) determining diversity, frequency and distribution patterns of Bulinus spp.; and (iii) establishing genetic variability and phylogeographical patterns using Bayesian inference and parsimony network analyses. Out of the 58 crater lakes surveyed, three species of Bulinus snails were found in 34 crater lakes. Bulinus tropicus was dominating, Bulinus forskalii was found in two lakes and Bulinus truncatus in one. The latter two species are unconfirmed potential hosts for S. haematobium in this region. However, Bulinus tropicus is an important species for schistosomiasis transmission in ruminants. Bulinus tropicus comprised 31 haplotypes while both B. forskalii and B. truncatus exhibited only a single haplotype in the crater lakes. All species clustered with most of the haplotypes from surrounding lake systems forming source regions for the colonization of the crater lakes. This first detailed malacological study of the crater lakes systems in western Uganda revealed presence of Bulinus species that are either not known or not regionally known to be hosts for S. haematobium, the causing agent of human urogenital schistosomiasis. Though this disease risk is almost negligible, the observed dominance of B. tropicus in the crater lakes shows that there is a likelihood of a high risk of infections with Schistosoma bovis. Thus, extra attention should be accorded to safeguard wild and domestic ruminants in this region as the population benefits from these animals.     

Colonization and risk factors for Brachyspira aalborgi and Brachyspira pilosicoli in humans and dogs on tea estates in Assam, India

The prevalence of colonization with the anaerobic intestinal spirochaetes Brachyspira aalborgi and Brachyspira pilosicoli was investigated in humans (n = 316) and dogs (n = 101) living on three tea estates in Assam, India. Colonization was detected using PCR on DNA from faeces. Nineteen (6%) human faecal samples contained B. aalborgi DNA, 80 (25.3%) contained B. pilosicoli DNA, and 10 (3.2%) contained DNA from both species. One canine sample contained DNA from B. pilosicoli. Significant factors for B. aalborgi colonization in logistic regression were: infection of family members with B. aalborgi (P < 0.001), being a resident of Balipara (P = 0.03), and use of water treatment (P = 0.03). For B. pilosicoli, significant factors were: other family members being positive for B. pilosicoli (P < 0.001), water obtained from a well (P = 0.006), water treatment (P = 0.03), and not having visited a doctor in the previous 12 months (P = 0.03).     

Miracidial attraction by Biomphalaria straminea, Lymnaea columella and Physa sp on miracidia of Schistosoma mansoni BH strain]

The attraction exercised over Schistosoma mansoni miracidia by Biomphalaria straminea, Lymnaea columella and Physa sp using a specially designed apparatus consisting of two circular glass chambers joined by an open channel were studied. The molluscs or their snail-conditioned water (SCW) was placed in one of the chambers (randomly chosen). In the channel ten miracidia was deposited and the count of miracidia in each of the three compartments (the two chambers and the channel) was recorded during fifteen minutes. Ten replications of each experiment with different specimens of molluscs and miracidia were made. Statistical and ad-hoc exploratory data analysis showed that: a) the three species of molluscs and their SCW attract the miracidia; b) Physa sp attract more miracidia then L. columella. There was an isolated single B. straminea specimen that had a repulsive effect to the miracidia.     

Prevalence and genetic diversity of piroplasm species in horses and ticks from Tunisia

The genetic diversity and prevalence of Babesia and Theileria species in the equine population of Tunisia were studied using reverse line blot (RLB) hybridization on blood samples and unfed adult ticks collected from apparently healthy horses from three bioclimatic zones in Tunisia. Piroplasms were identified in 13 of 104 of the horse blood samples analyzed (12.5%) and five genotype groups were identified: Theileria equi group A (nine animals, 8.7%), group C (one animal, 1.0%) and group D (three animals, 2.9%), and Babesia caballi groups A and B (one animal each). All horses from the semi-arid zone were negative and prevalence in the humid and sub-humid zones were 12.9% and 20.0%, respectively. Three Ixodid tick species (Hyalomma marginatum, Hyalomma excavatum and Rhipicephalus bursa) were collected from examined horses and equine piroplasms were detected in 10.8% of them. T. equi groups A and D (9.2%), and B. caballi group B (1.6%) were identified in ticks. This work represents the first epidemiological report of equine piroplasmosis in Tunisia. Results showed a high level of diversity within the 18S rRNA gene of equine piroplasm species, and confirmed the presence in Tunisia of two T. equi genetic groups, C and D, only reported before in South Africa and Sudan.     

Evolutionary genomics of Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato: Findings,hypotheses, and the rise of hybrids

Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato (B. burgdorferi s.l.), the group of bacterial species represented by Lyme disease pathogens, has one of the most complex and variable genomic architectures among prokaryotes. Showing frequent recombination within and limited gene flow among geographic populations, the B. burgdorferi s.l. genomes provide an excellent window into the processes of bacterial evolution at both within- and between-population levels. Comparative analyses of B. burgdorferi s.l. genomes revealed a highly dynamic plasmid composition but a conservative gene repertoire. Gene duplication and loss as well as sequence variations at loci encoding surface-localized lipoproteins (e.g., the PF54 genes) are strongly associated with adaptive differences between species. There are a great many conserved intergenic spacer sequences that are candidates for cis-regulatory elements and non-coding RNAs. Recombination among coexisting strains occurs at a rate approximately three times the mutation rate. The coexistence of a large number of genomic groups within local B. burgdorferi s.l. populations may be driven by immune-mediated diversifying selection targeting major antigen loci as well as by adaptation to multiple host species. Questions remain regarding the ecological causes (e.g., climate change, host movements, or new adaptations) of the ongoing range expansion of B. burgdorferi s.l. and on the genomic variations associated with its ecological and clinical variability. Anticipating an explosive growth of the number of B. burgdorferi s.l. genomes sampled from both within and among species, we propose genome-based methods to test adaptive mechanisms and to identify molecular bases of phenotypic variations. Genome sequencing is also necessary for monitoring a likely increase of genetic admixture of previously isolated species and populations in North America and elsewhere.     

Spatial spread and demographic expansion of Lyme borreliosis spirochaetes in Eurasia

The Lyme borreliosis (LB) group of spirochaetes currently comprises 18 named species that vary in their geographic distribution, host specificity and ability to cause disease in humans. In Europe three species are most abundant, Borrelia afzelii, Borrelia garinii and Borrelia valaisiana but only two of these (B. garinii and B. afzelii) are regularly found in Asia as well. A recently published study has shown that Borrelia species associated with birds, such as B. garinii, showed limited geographic structuring between European countries while, the rodent associated species, B. afzelii, showed extensive spatial structuring in Europe. Here, we use multilocus sequence analysis to show that when the wider, inter-continental, distribution is considered, there is evidence of spatial structuring even in the bird-associated species B. garinii. Furthermore, our investigations into historical LB populations provided evidence for range expansions of B. garinii and B. afzelii populations in Europe in the distant past. We propose that the expansion of B. afzelii in Europe may be linked to rodent population expansions after the last glacial maximum.     

Anopheles gambiae complex and disease transmission in Africa

Anopheles gambiae complex mosquitoes are present throughout tropical Africa and its offshore islands. Recent work has shown that at least 6 cryptic or “sibling” species are involved. They comprise 2 salt-water species, A. melas and A. merus, 3 freshwater species—provisionally known as species A, B, and C, and a mineralwater species known as species D. Artificial inter-species crosses yield sterile hybrid males. Rarity of hybridization in nature proves the reproductive isolation and valid genetic barriers between these 6 species.Morphological identification of most individuals of both saltwater and the mineralwater species is possible for larvae and adult females, using meristic features and other variable dimensions and ratios. Differential identification of the 3 freshwater species relies almost completely on cytotaxonomic methods.Species A and B occur together in most areas, extending southwards to sub-tropical latitudes and eastward to Mauritius. Proportions of mixed A-B populations may depend directly or indirectly on relative humidity, with A favoured when nocturnal humidities approach saturation. Species B is often absent from areas of highest humidity, but thrives in relatively arid savannas and steppes. Species C and D have relict distributions. Both saltwater species are coastal: melas in West Africa and merus in East Africa and larger islands except Zanzibar; merus also spreads inland.Apart from species C, which is always zoophilic, all members of the complex are proven or probable vectors of human malaria and filariasis, but with some wide contrasts in their levels of vectorial efficiency. Transmission of some arboviruses (Tataguine, O'nyong-nyong) is associated with species B, and perhaps with A also. Species B may transmit setariasis of cattle; melas and merus may also carry enzootic filariae.Much of the confusing ecophenotypic plasticity of A. gambiae sensu lato is attributable to the differential biological characteristics of these 6 species with their dissimilar geographical distributions, behavioural contrasts and asynchronous population dynamics. Shifts in the species balance occur regularly between A and B and between freshwater and saltwater populations. Species C does not interchange so much with B under natural conditions, but may survive at high densities after control of A or B.Additional versatility is caused by genetic polymorphism in some of the species, notably B. This species is the most widespread, and individual females tend to be either endophilic or exophilic, anthropophagic or zoophagic, early biters or late biters, and doubtless other alternatives, according to the arrangement of their floating chromosome inversions.Control measures have to be considered separately for each of the sibling species. House spraying with residual insecticides against endophilic species A is possibly sufficient to break disease transmission (assuming favourable response of ancillary vectors) and even to eradicate A completely. Efficacy of this method against other species in the complex is reduced by their exophily, which can be enhanced by behaviouristic avoidance due to the extremely low threshold of irritability exhibited by gambiae s.l. adults in general. Genetic polymorphism of species B may lead to true behaviouristic resistance. Larvicidal control of species A and B is beneficial, but made operationally difficult by their tendency to utilize temporary breeding-sites. Effectiveness of DDT and cyclodiene insecticides is further limited by the development of physiological insecticide resistance by species A and B. Adequate control of both saltwater species, and probably the mineralwater species also, can be attained by antilarval measures.Prospects of reduction of malaria and filariasis where melas, merus and species A and D are principal vectors may be much better than many people imagine. Widespread prevalence and inherent resilience of species B represents an insurmountable public health obstacle at present. Continued research may provide new control methods for integrated use against these mosquitoes. Concepts such as seeding breeding sites with pathogenic microsporidians or fungi, releasing sterile hybrid males or chemosterilized males, and other even more elaborate genetic control techniques, may be of special relevance to control of gambiae complex mosquitoes and diseases they transmit.     

Bacteroides species in the normal neonatal faecal flora.

Bacteroides spp. were isolated from the faeces of neonates and identified by rapid modifications of established conventional methods. Gram-negative anaerobic bacilli were recovered from 12 out of 16 neonates and a heavy growth of Bacteroides spp. was obtained from all 12 specimens. Twelve representative isolates from each subject were selected for identification; 141 of the 144 Bacteroides isolates belonged to the B. fragilis group and three to the B. melaninogenicus/oralis group. Eight species were represented within the B. fragilis group. B. vulgatus (c. 46%) and B. thetaiotaomicron (c. 30%) were the predominant species. B. fragilis, the type-species of the group, formed only a small proportion of neonatal faecal flora. The proportional representation of individual species were similar to that found in adults but B. asaccharolyticus was not represented.