Characterization of the nuclear localization signal of the hepatitis delta virus antigen

The delta antigen (HDAg) is the only protein encoded by the hepatitis delta virus (HDV) RNA genome. The HDAg contains an RNA binding domain, a dimerization domain, and a nuclear localization signal (NLS). The nuclear import of HDV RNPs is thought to be one of the first tasks of the HDAg during the HDV replication cycle. Using c-myc-PK fusions with several regions of the HDAg in transfection assays in Huh7 cells, we found that the HDAg NLS consists of a single stretch of 10 amino acids, EGAPPAKRAR, located in positions 66-75. Deletion and mutation analysis of this region showed that both the acidic glutamic acid residue at position 66 and the basic arginine residue at position 75 are essential for promoting nuclear import.     

Morbillivirus nucleoprotein possesses a novel nuclear localization signal and a CRM1-independent nuclear export signal

Morbilliviruses, which belong to the Mononegavirales, replicate its RNA genome in the cytoplasm of the host cell. However, they also form characteristic intranuclear inclusion bodies, consisting of nucleoprotein (N), in infected cells. To analyze the mechanisms of nucleocytoplasmic transport of N protein, we characterized the nuclear localization (NLS) and nuclear export (NES) signals of canine distemper virus (CDV) N protein by deletion mutation and alanine substitution of the protein. The NLS has a novel leucine/isoleucine-rich motif (TGILISIL) at positions 70-77, whereas the NES is composed of a leucine-rich motif (LLRSLTLF) at positions 4-11. The NLS and NES of the N proteins of other morbilliviruses, that is, measles virus (MV) and rinderpest virus (RPV), were also analyzed. The NLS of CDV-N protein is conserved at the same position in MV-N protein, whereas the NES of MV-N protein is located in the C-terminal region. The NES of RPV-N protein is also located at the same position as CDV-N protein, whereas the NLS motif is present not only at the same locus as CDV-N protein but also at other sites. Interestingly, the nuclear export of all these N proteins appears to proceed via a CRM1-independent pathway.     

BS69的亚细胞定位及其核输出信号序列的分析鉴定

目的: 分析腺病毒E1A相关蛋白BS69不同亚型的DNA序列,寻找新的核输出信号序列,并在Cos7细胞中表达确定其亚细胞定位。方法: 分析数据库中不同BS69亚型DNA序列,与传统和输出信号序列比对,寻找可能的新的核输出信号序列。采用DNA重组技术把BS69不同亚型片段的cDNA插入到真核表达载体pcDNA3.1上,转染Cos7细胞,用免疫荧光染色方法确定其亚细胞定位,用Western blotting方法验证不同亚型BS69在细胞中的功能。结果: 在BS69亚型2上面发现1段富含亮氨酸的基因序列,与核输出信号序列极为相似。免疫荧光染色方法显示BS69亚型2定位于细胞浆中,而BS69亚型1和2个亚型共同序列编码的蛋白质则定位于细胞核中。BS69亚型2参与了EB病毒潜伏膜蛋白1(Epstein-Barr virus latent membrane protein 1,LMP1)介导的信号转导途径。结论: BS69不同亚型具有不同的亚细胞定位,因此具有不同的生物学功能,其中核蛋白是转录调控因子,细胞浆蛋白则可能参与鼻咽癌发生发展的调控。     

核定位信号在JC病毒样颗粒入核转运中的作用

目的探讨JC病毒(JCV)主要外壳蛋白VP1所含核定位信号(NLS)在JCV病毒样颗粒(VLP)入核转运中的作用。方法应用位点诱变法将JCV野生型VP1(wtVP1)氨基末端3个氨基酸:第5位赖氨酸、第6位精氨酸、第7位赖氨酸分别置换为丙氨酸、甘氨酸、丙氨酸,制备成NLS变异的VP1(ΔNLS-VP1)。编码ΔNLS-VP1的基因克隆到原核表达质粒pET-15b中,体外表达、重组VP1 NLS变异的病毒样颗粒(ΔNLS-VLP),异硫氰基荧光素(FITC)标记后感染地高辛渗透或未渗透的SVG细胞,荧光显微镜观察VLP入核转运。结果wtVP1组成的病毒样颗粒(wtVLP)可以进入地高辛渗透或未渗透的SVG细胞核,而ΔNLS-VLP只能进入细胞浆,不能进入细胞核;体外转染后,wtVP1主要在SVG细胞核表达,而ΔNLS-VP1主要在细胞浆表达;包裹外源性DNA的VLP感染SVG细胞后,则wtVLP包裹的DNA在细胞浆和细胞核内均可检测到,而ΔNLS-VLP包裹的DNA只能在细胞浆检测到,不能在细胞核内检测到。VLP体外结合分析发现,wtVLP与胞浆转运因子(importin)α、β均可结合,而ΔNLS-VLP与importinα、β均不能结合。结论VP1 NLS对于VLP入核转运是必需的,VIP的入核转运是由VP1 NLS与importin相互作用介导的。     

A novel transfecting peptide comprising a tetrameric nuclear localization sequence

The transport of exogenous DNA into the nucleus of eukaryotic cells is a prerequisite for successful gene delivery. To favor nuclear transport we synthesized a tetramer of the nuclear localization signal (NLS) of the SV40 large T-antigen as a novel nonviral gene delivery vector. This 4.4-kDa lysine-rich peptide (NLSV404) binds and compacts DNA by electrostatic interaction and forms stable polyplexes. Apart from its sequence-specific potency to mediate nuclear accumulation of conjugated albumin, NLSV404 also displays properties of nuclear transport for plasmid DNA as confirmed by fluorescence in situ hybridization. Further, NLSV404 polyplexes are shown to efficiently transfect various cell lines such as 16HBE14o–, HeLa S6, and Cos7 cells. NLSV404 polyplexes displayed at least 20-fold higher transfection rates than analogous polyplexes formed by the nuclear transport-deficient mutant sequence cNLS. Using growth-arrested cells, NLSV404 complexes were at least 100-fold more efficient than cNLS complexes. Combination of NLSV404 peptide but not of cNLS peptide with preformed polyethylenimine and dendrimer DNA complexes resulted in a strong increase in transfection efficiency. Incubation of cells prior to transfection with NLSV404 polyplexes with excess free peptide NLSV404 but not with cNLS resulted in a dose-dependent dramatic decrease in the transfection rate, suggesting a sequence-specific competitive inhibition. These results indicate that NLSV404 mediates nuclear accumulation of transfected plasmid DNA and that it can be a highly useful component of nonviral gene vectors.Abbreviations BSA-BODIPY Fluorescence-labeled bovine serum albumin - EGFP Enhanced green fluorescent protein - FISH Fluorescent in situ hybridization - NLS Nuclear localization signal - PEI Polyethylenimine - SV40 Simian virus 40     

Characterization of the nuclear and nucleolar localization signals of bovine herpesvirus-1 infected cell protein 27

Bovine herpesvirus-1 infected cell protein 27 (BICP27) was detected predominantly in the nucleolus. The open reading frame of BICP27 was fused with the enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP) gene to investigate its subcellular localization in live cells and BICP27 was able to direct monomeric, dimeric or trimeric EYFP exclusively to the nucleolus. By constructing a series of deletion mutants, the putative nuclear localization signal (NLS) and nucleolar localization signal (NoLS) were mapped to ⁸¹RRAR⁸⁴ and ⁸⁶RPRRPRRRPRRR⁹⁷ respectively. Specific deletion of the putative NLS, NoLS or both abrogated nuclear localization, nucleolar localization or both respectively. Furthermore, NLS was able to direct trimeric EYFP predominantly to the nucleus but excluded from the nucleolus, whereas NoLS targeted trimeric EYFP primarily to the nucleus, and enriched in the nucleolus with faint staining in the cytoplasm. NLS + NoLS directed trimeric EYFP predominantly to the nucleolus with faint staining in the nucleus. Moreover, deletion of NLS + NoLS abolished the transactivating activity of BICP27 on gC promoter, whereas deletion of either NLS or NoLS did not. The study demonstrated that BICP27 is a nucleolar protein, adding BICP27 to the growing list of transactivators which localize to the nucleolus.     

Characterization of signals that dictate nuclear/nucleolar and cytoplasmic shuttling of the capsid protein of Tomato leaf curl Java virus associated with DNAβ satellite

Transport of the viral genome into the nucleus is an obligatory step in the replication cycle of geminiviruses. Capsid proteins (CPs) of geminiviruses are multifunctional proteins thought to be involved in this process. The CP of monopartite geminiviruses is absolutely essential for virus movement. To more precisely examine the role of CP, we have constructed a series of single and double deletions into the coding sequence of Tomato leaf curl Java virus (ToLCJAV) CP and examined sub-cellular localization using transient expression of GFP fusion proteins. In this report, the domains of the CP encoded by ToLCJAV localized in the nucleus/nucleolus and cytoplasm in transfected cells were mapped. Deletion analysis revealed that the Arg-rich cluster from amino acids (aa) ¹⁶KVRRR²⁰ in the N-terminal region of CP functioned as nuclear/nucleolar localization signals (NLSs). The region from aa ⁵²RKPR⁵⁵ contained basic amino acid cluster was capable to redirect the CP to the nucleus. Further, both transient expression and yeast hybrid assays demonstrated that CP was capable of shuttling between the nucleus and cytoplasm of the cell. Deletion mutant analysis revealed that this property was attributed to a nuclear export signal (NES) sequence consisted of aa (²⁴⁵LKIRIY²⁵⁰) reside at C-terminal part of CP. This hydrophobic region caused transport of GFP to the cytoplasm. However, ToLCJAV CP NLSs and NES show peculiarities in the number and position of basic residues. Taken together, these results demonstrated that ToLCJAV CP shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm, such an activity homolog to bipartite geminivirus BV1 ORF.     

Conserved amino acids of the human immunodeficiency virus type 2 Vpx nuclear localization signal are critical for nuclear targeting of the viral preintegration complex in non-dividing cells

The HIV-2 viral accessory protein Vpx is related to, but distinct from the Vpr protein of HIV-1. Vpx is packaged into virions and as a component of the viral preintegration complex (PIC) is required for efficient virus replication in non-dividing cells. We have previously reported that the minimal transferable region of Vpx that contained karyophilic properties was aa 65 to 72. Analysis of Vpx sequences from various HIV-2/SIV strains reveals that this region contains highly conserved amino acids, including two basic residues (K68, R70) and three tyrosines (Y66, Y69, Y71). Here, we demonstrate that mutation of the basic or tyrosine residues abolishes PIC nuclear import in arrested cells as assessed by PCR detection of viral integration. Examination of cell-free virus by Western blot indicated that all mutant proteins were incorporated into virions, suggesting that the lack of replication in arrested cells was not due to a loss of Vpx in target cells. Together, these studies map critical residues of the Vpx nuclear localization signal that are required for efficient infection of non-dividing cells.     

The N-terminal 33 amino acid domain of Siva-1 is sufficient for nuclear localization

Siva-1 induces apoptosis in multiple pathological processes and plays an important role in the suppression of tumor metastasis, protein degradation, and other functions. Although many studies have demonstrated that Siva-1 functions in the cytoplasm, a few have found that Siva-1 can relocate to the nucleus. In this study, we found that the first 33 amino acid residues of Siva-1 are required for its nuclear localization. Further study demonstrated that the green fluorescent protein can be imported into the nucleus after fusion with these 33 amino acid residues. Other Siva-1 regions and domains showed less effect on Siva-1 nuclear localization. By site-mutagenesis of all of these 33 amino acid residues, we found that mutants of the first 1-18 amino acids affected Siva-1 nuclear compartmentalization but could not complete this localization independently. In summary, we demonstrated that the N-terminal 33 amino acid residues were sufficient for Siva-1 nuclear localization, but the mechanism of this translocation needs additional investigation.     

Characterization of a baculovirus nuclear localization signal domain in the late expression factor 3 protein

The baculovirus Autographa californica multicapsid nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV) single-stranded DNA binding protein LEF-3 is a multi-functional protein that is required to transport the helicase protein P143 into the nucleus of infected cells where they function to replicate viral DNA. The N-terminal 56 amino acid region of LEF-3 is required for nuclear transport. In this report, we analyzed the effect of site-specific mutagenesis of LEF-3 on its intracellular distribution. Fluorescence microscopy of expression plasmid-transfected cells demonstrated that the residues 28 to 32 formed the core nuclear localization signal, but other adjacent positively-charged residues augmented these sequences. Comparison with other group I Alphabaculoviruses suggested that this core region functionally duplicated residues including 18 and 19. This was demonstrated by the loss of nuclear localization when the equivalent residues (18 to 20) in Choristoneura fumiferana nucleopolyhedrovirus (CfMNPV) LEF-3 were mutated. The AcMNPV LEF-3 nuclear localization domain was also shown to drive nuclear transport in mammalian cells indicating that the protein nuclear import systems in insect and mammalian cells are conserved. We also demonstrated by mutagenesis that two conserved cysteine residues located at 82 and 106 were not essential for nuclear localization or for interaction with P143. However, by using a modified construct of P143 that localized on its own to the nucleus, we demonstrated that a functional nuclear localization domain on LEF-3 was required for interaction between LEF-3 and P143.     

核定位信号类短肽的生物医学应用

核蛋白定位信号（nuclear localization signal,NLS）是一段富含精氨酸、赖氨酸等碱性氨基酸的短肽,是介导蛋白通过核孔复合体入核的必要信号序列。NLS存在于真核细胞核蛋白及病毒蛋白中,鱼精蛋白是应用较为广泛的天然NLS类短肽。针对NLS能够介导DNA、蛋白质、纳米粒等进入细胞核的特点,国内外学者对其在生物医学中的应用进行了广泛研究。     

ERK信号通路的信号转导调控机制

胞外信号调控激酶（ERK）是发现的第1个丝裂原活化蛋白激酶（MAPK）,它调控多种重要的细胞生物学过程,包括细胞增殖、分化和凋亡等。ERK信号级联反应能够特异地介导广泛的生物学过程,其机制主要是通过信号的反馈调控,与支架蛋白的相互作用,亚细胞定位的改变,在级联反应的每一个环节存在不同功能的多种组分,细胞内非磷酸酶抑制物和G蛋白等的调控实现的。     

Mutational analysis of the EMCV 2A protein identifies a nuclear localization signal and an eIF4E binding site

Cardioviruses have a unique 2A protein (143 aa). During genome translation, the encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) 2A is released through a ribosome skipping event mitigated through C-terminal 2A sequences and by subsequent N-terminal reaction with viral 3C^pro. Although viral replication is cytoplasmic, mature 2A accumulates in nucleoli shortly after infection. Some protein also transiently associates with cytoplasmic 40S ribosomal subunits, an activity contributing to inhibition of cellular cap-dependent translation. Cardiovirus sequences predict an eIF4E binding site (aa 126-134) and a nuclear localization signal (NLS, aa 91-102), within 2A, both of which are functional during EMCV infection. Point mutations preventing eIF4E:2A interactions gave small-plaque phenotype viruses, but still inhibited cellular cap-dependent translation. Deletions within the NLS motif relocalized 2A to the cytoplasm and abrogated the inhibition of cap-dependent translation. A fusion protein linking the 2A NLS to eGFP was sufficient to redirect the reporter to the nucleus but not into nucleoli.     

Characterization of nuclear localization and export signals of the major tegument protein VP8 of bovine herpesvirus-1

Bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) VP8 is found in the nucleus immediately after infection. Transient expression of VP8 fused to yellow fluorescent protein (YFP) in COS-7 cells confirmed the nuclear localization of VP8 in the absence of other viral proteins. VP8 has four putative nuclear localization signals (NLS). Deletion of pat4 ((51)RRPR(54)) or pat7 ((48)PRVRRPR(54)) NLS2 abrogated nuclear accumulation, whereas deletion of (48)PRV(50) did not, so pat4 NLS2 is critical for nuclear localization of VP8. Furthermore, NLS1 ((11)RRPRR(15)), pat4 NLS2, and pat7 NLS2 were all capable of transporting the majority of YFP to the nucleus. Finally, a 12-amino-acid peptide with the sequence RRPRRPRVRRPR directed all of YFP into the nucleus, suggesting that reiteration of the RRPR motif makes the nuclear localization more efficient. Heterokaryon assays demonstrated that VP8 is also capable of shuttling between the nucleus and cytoplasm of the cell. Deletion mutant analysis revealed that this property is attributed to a leucine-rich nuclear export sequence (NES) consisting of amino acids (485)LSAYLTLFVAL(495). This leucine-rich NES caused transport of YFP to the cytoplasm. These results demonstrate that VP8 shuttles between the nucleus and cytoplasm.     

Mutations within the nuclear localization signal of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus nucleocapsid protein attenuate virus replication

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) is an RNA virus replicating in the cytoplasm, but the nucleocapsid (N) protein is specifically localized to the nucleus and nucleolus in virus-infected cells. A 'pat7' motif of 41-PGKK(N/S)KK has previously been identified in the N protein as the functional nuclear localization signal (NLS); however, the biological consequences of N protein nuclear localization are unknown. In the present study, the role of N protein nuclear localization during infection was investigated in pigs using an NLS-null mutant virus. When two lysines at 43 and 44 at the NLS locus were substituted to glycines, the modified NLS with 41-PGGGNKK restricted the N protein to the cytoplasm. This NLS-null mutation was introduced into a full-length infectious cDNA clone of PRRSV. Upon transfection of cells, the NLS-null full-length clone induced cytopathic effects and produced infectious progeny. The NLS-null virus grew to a titer 100-fold lower than that of wild-type virus. To examine the response to NLS-null PRRSV in the natural host, three groups of pigs, consisting of seven animals per group, were intranasally inoculated with wild-type, placebo, or NLS-null virus, and the animals were maintained for 4 weeks. The NLS-null-infected pigs had a significantly shorter mean duration of viremia than wild-type-infected pigs but developed significantly higher titers of neutralizing antibodies. Mutations occurred at the NLS locus in one pig during viremia, and four types of mutations were identified: 41-PGRGNKK, 41-PGGRNKK, and 41-PGRRNKK, and 41-PGKKSKK. Both wild-type and NLS-null viruses persisted in the tonsils for at least 4 weeks, and the NLS-null virus persisting in the tonsils was found to be mutated to either 41-PGRGNKK or 41-PGGRNKK in all pigs. No other mutation was found in the N gene. All types of reversions which occurred during viremia and persistence were able to translocate the mutated N proteins to the nucleus, indicating a strong selection pressure for reversion at the NLS locus of the N protein in vivo. Reversions from NLS-null to functional NLS in the tonsils suggest a possible correlation of viral persistence with N protein nuclear localization. These results show that N protein nuclear localization is non-essential for PRRSV multiplication but may play an important role in viral attenuation and in pathogenesis in vivo.     

Processivity factor of KSHV contains a nuclear localization signal and binding domains for transporting viral DNA polymerase into the nucleus

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated human herpesvirus (KSHV) encodes a processivity factor (PF-8, ORF59) that forms homodimers and binds to viral DNA polymerase (Pol-8, ORF9). PF-8 is essential for stabilizing Pol-8 on template DNA so that Pol-8 can incorporate nucleotides continuously. Here, the intracellular interaction of these two viral proteins was examined by confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. When individually expressed, PF-8 was observed exclusively in the nucleus, whereas Pol-8 was found only in the cytoplasm. However, when co-expressed, Pol-8 was co-translocated with PF-8 into the nucleus. Mutational analysis revealed that PF-8 contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS) as well as domains located at the N-terminus and the C-proximal regions that are required for Pol-8 binding. This study suggests that the mechanism that enables PF-8 to transport Pol-8 into the nucleus is the first critical step required for Pol-8 and PF-8 to function processively in KSHV DNA synthesis.     

核转录因子-KB与支气管哮喘的研究进展

近年来,支气管哮喘发病率呈逐年上升趋势,有效控制哮喘的发生对哮喘患者的生活质量至关重要。目前研究认为气道炎症和气道重构是支气管哮喘病理过程的两个重要方面。此过程与多种炎性蛋白的高表达有关,而核转录因子．KB（NF—KB）作为这些炎症蛋白的上游调控因子参与了哮喘的病理发展。由此,特异性的抑制NF—KB信号转导通路为支气管哮喘的治疗开辟了一条新的途径。     

Identification of a nonconventional motif necessary for the nuclear import of the human parvovirus B19 major capsid protein (VP2)

Human parvovirus B19 replicates and encapsidates its genome in the nucleus of erythroid progenitors in vivo and in vitro. We wanted to understand the determinants necessary for the nuclear transport of the major coat protein, VP2, which makes up about 96% of the viral capsid proteins. A nonconsensus basic motif, KLGPRKATGRW, necessary for the nuclear localization of VP2 was identified and shown to be able to import reporter proteins into the nucleus. The sequence is conserved among the VP2 C-terminal region of erythroviruses. This newly identified sequence will facilitate the understanding of the replication of these viruses.