PIN-1 promoter polymorphisms in mild cognitive impairment and susceptibility to Alzheimer's disease: a preliminary report

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Peptydil prolyl cis-trans isomerase (PIN-1), which specifically regulates the conformational changes following phosphorylation of several proteins, targets the inactive hyper-phosphorylated tau on the Thr231-Pro motif and directly restores its biological function. Interestingly, PIN-1 is oxidatively inhibited not only in Alzheimer's disease brain but also in the hippocampi of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) subjects. The PIN-1 gene is characterized by two single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the promoter region which are associated with the risk of Alzheimer's disease. The aim of this study was to analyse the genotype and allele distributions of these PIN-1 SNPs in MCI subjects diagnosed respectively as amnestic MCI (a-MCI) and multiple impaired cognitive domains (mcd-MCI) on the basis of cognitive features. METHODS: -667 T/C and -842 C/G SNPs were genotyped by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and direct sequencing in 43 MCI subjects, with the intention of comparing -667 and -842 SNP frequencies with those previously described in 111 Alzheimer's disease patients (AD) and 73 healthy controls (HC). RESULTS: The allele frequencies of the -842 C/G SNP in a-MCI subjects are similar to those of AD subjects, while those of mcd-MCI are comparable to HC (G allele 83% in both a-MCI and AD; 95% and 94% in mcd-MCI and HC, respectively). A similar trend is also observed in -842 C/G genotypes. CONCLUSIONS: Since a-MCI is thought to be the preclinical form of AD, the similar genotype distribution of -842 SNP in AD and a-MCI, but not in mcd-MCI, suggests that it is potentially involved in the conversion of a-MCI to AD. In conclusion, these findings support the theory that polymorphisms of the PIN-1 gene can affect neurodegeneration and its clinical progression.     

Mild cognitive impairment: epidemiology and dementia risk in an elderly Italian population

OBJECTIVES: To investigate prevalence and incidence of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and its risk of progression to dementia in an elderly Italian population.
DESIGN: Longitudinal.
SETTING: Population-based cohort aged 65 and older resident in an Italian municipality.
PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1,016 subjects underwent baseline evaluation in 1999/2000. In 2003/04, information about cognitive outcome was collected for 745 participants who were free of dementia at baseline.
MEASUREMENTS: MCI (classified as with or without impairment of the memory domain), dementia, Alzheimer's dementia (AD), and vascular dementia (VaD) diagnosed according to current international criteria.
RESULTS: Overall prevalence of MCI was 7.7% (95% confidence interval (CI)=6.1–9.7 %) and was greater with older age and poor education. During 4 years of follow-up, 155 incident MCI cases were diagnosed, with an incidence rate of 76.8 (95% CI=66.8–88.4) per 1,000 person-years. Approximately half of prevalent and incident MCI cases had memory impairment. Compared with normal cognition, multivariable-adjusted risk for progression from MCI with memory impairment to dementia was 4.78 (95% CI=2.78–8.07) for any dementia, 5.92 (95% CI=3.20–10.91) for AD, and 1.61 (95% CI=0.37–7.00) for VaD. No association with dementia risk was found for MCI without memory impairment. Approximately one-third of MCI cases with memory impairment did not progress to dementia.
CONCLUSION: MCI occurs often in this elderly Italian cohort and is associated with greater risk of AD, but only when the impairment involves the memory domain. However, a substantial proportion of MCI cases with memory impairment do not progress to dementia.     

Physical performance across the cognitive spectrum and between dementia subtypes in a population-based sample of older adults: The HUNT study

BackgroundLiterature on physical performance in older adults across the cognitive spectrum remains inconclusive, and knowledge on differences between dementia subtypes is lacking. We aim to identify distinct physical-performance deficits across the cognitive spectrum and between dementia subtypes.Methods11,466 persons were included from the 70-year-and-older cohort in the fourth wave of the Trøndelag Health Study (HUNT4 70+). Physical performance was assessed with the Short Physical Performance Battery (SPPB), 4-meter gait speed, five-times-sit-to-stand (FTSS), grip strength and one-leg-standing (OLS). Clinical experts diagnosed dementia per DSM-5 criteria. Multiple linear and logistic regression were performed to analyze differences between groups. Age, sex, education, somatic comorbidity, physical activity and smoking status were used as covariates.ResultsGait speed declined across the cognitive spectrum, beginning in people with subjective cognitive decline (SCD). Participants with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) additionally showed reduced lower-limb muscle strength, balance and grip strength. Those with dementia scored lowest on all physical-performance measures. Participants with Alzheimer's disease (AD) had a higher SPPB sum score and faster gait speed than participants with vascular dementia (VaD) and Lewy body dementia (LBD); participants with VaD and LBD had lower odds of being able to perform FTSS and OLS than participants with AD.ConclusionsPhysical performance declined across the spectrum from cognitively healthy to SCD to MCI and to dementia. Participants with AD performed better on all assessments except grip strength than participants with VaD and LBD. Stage of cognitive impairment and dementia subtype should guide exercise interventions to prevent mobility decline and dependency.     

Awareness of memory deficits in patients with dementias: a study with the Everyday Memory Checklist

AIM: We examined the level of awareness of memory deficits in 63 patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD), 17 patients with dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), 14 patients with vascular dementia (VaD), and 56 patients with amnestic mild cognitive impairment (MCI). METHODS: The unawareness of memory impairment was evaluated with a standardized memory questionnaire system based on the Everyday Memory Checklist (EMC). The EMC scores for the patient's own rating, the caregivers' rating and the unawareness score, defined as the discrepancy between these (caregiver rating-patient rating), were analyzed. RESULTS: Although the EMC self-rating scores were comparable among the four groups, the EMC scores in caregivers were significantly higher in the AD group than in the DLB, VaD, and MCI groups. Therefore, the unawareness scores were significantly higher in the AD groups than in other groups. When an unawareness score of 9 or more was defined as significant, impaired awareness was found in 41 (65%) patients with AD, 1 (6%) patient with DLB, 5 (36%) patients with VaD, and in 19 (34%) patients with MCI. CONCLUSION: We found that impaired awareness was found in two-thirds of patients with mild AD and even in one-third of patients with MCI. However, other dementias, in particular DLB, had less severe and less frequent unawareness of memory deficits than AD, suggesting the difference in the pathophysiology between them.     

Prevalence and severity of gait disorders in Alzheimer's and non-Alzheimer's dementias

OBJECTIVES: To compare the prevalence, severity, and type of gait and balance disorders in Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VaD), Parkinson's disease with dementia (PDD), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), Parkinson's disease without dementia (PD), and age-matched controls. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: Secondary care clinics in geriatric psychiatry, neurology, and geriatrics. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred forty-five participants aged 65 and older (AD, n=40; VaD, n=39; PDD, n=46; DLB, n=32; PD, n=46; and controls, n=42). MEASUREMENTS: Prevalence and severity of gait and balance disorders were assessed using the Tinetti gait and balance scale. The types of gait disorders in each diagnostic group were classified using the Nutt et al. classification. RESULTS: Gait and balance disorders were more common with PDD (93%), VaD (79%), and DLB (75%) than with PD (43%) and AD (25%) and in controls (7%). The risk of gait and balance disorder was higher in the non-Alzheimer's dementia groups (VaD, PDD, and DLB) than in the AD group (odds ratio=15 (95% confidence interval=6-37). If a gait disorder was present in mild dementia (Cambridge Examination for Mental Disorders of the Elderly cognitive subsection score >65), this was diagnostic of non-Alzheimer's dementia, with sensitivity of 78% and specificity of 100%. Non-Alzheimer's dementia groups had worse Tinetti gait and balance scores than the AD group (all P<.001). The types of gait disorders discriminated between non-Alzheimer's dementias. CONCLUSION: The findings support the idea that gait and balance assessment may augment the diagnostic evaluation of dementia.     

Diabetes as a risk factor for dementia and mild cognitive impairment: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies

This study examined the association of diabetes with the onset of dementia (including Alzheimer's disease (AD), vascular dementia (VD) and any dementia) and mild cognitive impairment (MCI) by using a quantitative meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. EMBASE and MEDLINE were searched for articles published up to December 2010. All studies that examined the relationship between diabetes and the onset of dementia or MCI were included. Pooled relative risks were calculated using fixed and random effects models. Nineteen studies met our inclusion criteria for this meta-analysis, and 6184 subjects with diabetes and 38 530 subjects without diabetes were included respectively. All subjects were without dementia or MCI at baseline. The quantitative meta-analysis showed that subjects with diabetes had higher risk for AD (relative risk (RR):1.46, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.20-1.77), VD (RR: 2.48, 95% CI: 2.08-2.96), any dementia (RR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.31-1.74) and MCI (RR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.02-1.45) than those without. The quantitative meta-analysis showed that diabetes was a risk factor for incident dementia (including AD, VD and any dementia) and MCI.     

Vascular Dementia: Distinguishing Characteristics, Treatment, and Prevention

Vascular dementia (VaD) is the second-most-common cause of dementia in the elderly, after Alzheimer's disease (AD). VaD is defined as loss of cognitive function resulting from ischemic, hypoperfusive, or hemorrhagic brain lesions due to cerebrovascular disease or cardiovascular pathology. Diagnosis requires the following criteria: cognitive loss, often predominantly subcortical; vascular brain lesions demonstrated by imaging; a temporal link between stroke and dementia; and exclusion of other causes of dementia. Poststroke VaD may be caused by large-vessel disease with multiple strokes (multiinfarct dementia) or by a single stroke (strategic stroke VaD). A common form is subcortical ischemic VaD caused by small-vessel occlusions with multiple lacunas and by hypoperfusive lesions resulting from stenosis of medullary arterioles, as in Binswanger's disease. Unlike with AD, in VaD, executive dysfunction is commonly seen, but memory impairment is mild or may not even be present. The cholinesterase inhibitors used for AD are also useful in VaD. Prevention strategies should focus on reduction of stroke and cardiovascular disease, with attention to control of risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperhomocysteinemia.     

Relationship between antihypertensive drug therapy and cognitive function in elderly hypertensive patients with memory complaints

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between antihypertensive treatments and cognitive function in elderly hypertensive patients with memory complaints. METHODS: The association between cognitive function and antihypertensive drug therapy was studied in 1241 hypertensive elderly patients with memory complaints attending a geriatric outpatient clinic. Cognitive function was assessed using the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) and validated neuropsychological tests (Cognitive Efficiency Profile; CEP). Patients were classified into four categories according to their cognitive status: normal cognitive function, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), Alzheimer's disease (AD) or vascular dementia (VaD). RESULTS: In this population aged 78 +/- 8 years, with a mean blood pressure of 152 +/- 19/86 +/- 12 mmHg, antihypertensive treatment was prescribed for 57% of patients. After adjustment for age, sex and education, treated hypertensive patients had better cognitive function than untreated patients (MMSE score 23.9 +/- 5.6/30 versus 22.7 +/- 6.4/30, P < 0.001, CEP score 49.1 +/- 24.9/100 versus 45.4 +/- 23.7/100, P < 0.001). This association was observed independently of the cognitive status, both in normal, MCI, AD and VaD hypertensive patients. The odds ratio (OR) for AD was 0.58 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.42-0.81] in treated compared with untreated hypertensive patients. In patients on antihypertensive therapy, higher cognitive function was observed in patients using calcium antagonists compared with those without calcium antagonists (CEP 52.9 +/- 24.6/100 versus 46.4 +/- 23.4/100, P < 0.001; OR for AD 0.67; 95% CI 0.45-0.99), independently of blood pressure level. CONCLUSIONS: Antihypertensive therapy was associated with a lower risk of cognitive impairment and AD. In particular, the use of calcium antagonists was associated with a decreased risk of cognitive impairment and AD independently of the blood pressure level, suggesting a specific neuroprotective effect of these antihypertensive agents.     

Depressive symptoms and incidence of mild cognitive impairment and probable dementia in elderly women: the Women's Health Initiative Memory Study

OBJECTIVES: To examine whether significant depressive symptoms in postmenopausal women increases the risk of subsequent mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Thirty nine of the 40 Women's Health Initiative (WHI) clinical centers that participated in a randomized clinical trial of hormone therapy. PARTICIPANTS: Six thousand three hundred seventy‐six postmenopausal women without cognitive impairment aged 65 to 79 at baseline. MEASUREMENTS: Depressive disorders were assessed using an eight‐item Burnam algorithm and followed annually for a mean period of 5.4 years. A central adjudication committee classified the presence of MCI and probable dementia based on an extensive neuropsychiatric examination. RESULTS: Eight percent of postmenopausal women in this sample reported depressive symptoms above a 0.06 cut point on the Burnam algorithm. Depressive disorder at baseline was associated with greater risk of incident MCI (hazard ratio (HR)=1.98, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.33–2.94), probable dementia (HR=2.03, 95% CI=1.15–3.60), and MCI or probable dementia (HR=1.92, 95% CI=1.35–2.73) after controlling for sociodemographic characteristics, lifestyle and vascular risk factors, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular disease, antidepressant use, and current and past hormone therapy status. Assignment to hormone therapy and baseline cognitive function did not affect these relationships. Women without depression who endorsed a remote history of depression had a higher risk of developing dementia. CONCLUSION: Clinically significant depressive symptoms in women aged 65 and older are independently associated with greater incidence of MCI and probable dementia.     

Gait dysfunction in mild cognitive impairment syndromes

OBJECTIVES: To conduct a systematic clinical and quantitative assessment of gait in older adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) syndromes.
DESIGN: Cross-sectional.
SETTING: Einstein Aging Study, a community-based longitudinal aging study.
PARTICIPANTS: Fifty-four individuals with amnestic MCI (a-MCI), 62 with nonamnestic-MCI (na-MCI), and 295 healthy controls identified from the Einstein Aging Study participants.
MEASUREMENTS: Comparison of clinical and quantitative gait performance in subjects with MCI subtypes with that of cognitively normal older adults.
RESULTS: Neurological gaits were more common in a-MCI (31.5%, P =.008) but not in na-MCI (19.4%, P =.55), than in controls (16.3%). Quantitative gait in multiple parameters was worse in both MCI subtypes than in controls. Factor analysis revealed three independent factors representing pace, rhythm, and variability. Subjects with a-MCI had worse rhythm and variability scores than those with na-MCI and controls. Subjects with na-MCI had worse performance on the pace domain than the other two groups. Subjects with MCI and gait abnormalities had higher disability scores than subjects with MCI without gait abnormalities.
CONCLUSION: Gait dysfunction is common in older individuals with amnestic and nonamnestic subtypes of MCI.     

血清睾酮对老年男性轻度认知损伤和轻度痴呆患者认知功能的影响

目的　探讨认知损伤的老年男性患者中血清睾酮水平与认知功能的关系。方法　对 15例轻度认知损伤(MCI组 )、17例轻度阿尔茨海默病 (AD组 )、7例轻度血管性痴呆 (VaD组 )患者进行详细的认知功能检查。应用放射免疫法检测血清睾酮浓度。应用多元线性回归分析各项认知功能成绩与血清睾酮的关系 ,对年龄和文化水平进行调整。结果　MCI组睾酮与结构性检查的成绩呈正相关。轻度AD组睾酮与词表学习 3、复杂图形回忆和延迟回忆、领悟力、词语流畅性均呈正相关。轻度VaD组睾酮与词表学习 1的成绩呈负相关。当轻度AD和轻度VaD合并后 ,睾酮与词表学习 3、复杂图形复制和回忆及延迟回忆、领悟力、词语流畅性、简易智力状态检查表、地点定向、符号数字呈正相关关系 (P <0 .0 5 )。结论　血清睾酮水平与MCI和轻度痴呆患者的视空间技能有选择性关系 ,并可能与词语和图形记忆以及执行功能有关 ,这对于雄激素替代治疗痴呆的研究有重要意义。     

缺血性卒中后认知功能障碍的患病率和危险因素

目的 明确卒中后认知功能障碍(PSCI)的患病率和危险因素.方法 526例缺血性卒中患者被分为无认知障碍、认知障碍非痴呆(CIND)和血管性痴呆(VaD),根据影像学表现,患者分为皮质下缺血性血管病、皮质型缺血性血管病和其他类型,登记患者人口学、血管危险凶素和卒中病情等.结果 PSCI患病率36.7%.与无认知障碍相比,PSCI患者年龄大、女性比例高、教育程度低、彳T侧瘫痪多、抑郁评分高,但血管危险因素无差别.与无认知障碍者相比,VaD者经济水平低、配偶照料少、失语多、尿失禁多、皮质型缺血性血管病多;CIND者则有较多的皮质下缺血性血管病.VaD者较CIND者皮质型缺血性血管病多、抑郁评分低.高龄、女性、低社会经济水平、失语、皮质下缺血性血管病、皮质型缺血性血管病和抑郁评分高为PSCI的独立危险因素.结论 PSCI常见于缺血性卒中患者,与人口学因素、卒中类型及抑郁有关.     

Cerebrovascular disease in the elderly: lipoprotein metabolism and cognitive decline

Data concerning the treatment of lipoprotein disturbances in patients with cerebrovascular disease (CVD) are less robust than those for coronary heart disease (CHD), raising clinical questions as to which is the appropriate therapeutic approach to stroke patients. Although observational cohort studies have failed to demonstrate an association between lipoprotein disorders and stroke incidence, recently completed trials of subjects at risk for CHD have shown that statins reduce not only the risk of myocardial infarction and death, but also that of brain infarction and transient ischemic attacks. At present, it seems reasonable to conclude that stroke patients with undesirable lipid profiles who have a history of CHD should receive specific treatment for the lipid disorder. Recommendations are more problematic for stroke patients with lipid disorder but no history of CHD. Furthermore, many of the risk factors for CVD and vascular dementia (VaD), including serum total cholesterol (TC), lipoprotein(a), diabetes, atrial fibrillation, hypertension, apolipoprotein E levels, and atherosclerosis, have also been shown to increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In a recent study, we estimated the prevalence, incidence and rate of progression of Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) to dementia, and correlated vascular risk factors with incident MCI and its progression to dementia. We evaluated 2963 individuals from the population-based sample of 5632 subjects 65-84 years old of the Italian Longitudinal Study on Aging, with a 3.5-year follow-up. We found a progression rate to dementia (all causes) of 3.8/100 person-years. Furthermore, age was a risk factor for incident MCI, while education was protective, and serum TC evidenced a non-significant borderline trend for a protective effect. There was a non-significant trend for stroke as a risk factor of progression of MCI to dementia. In conclusion, in our population, among MCI patients who progressed to dementia, 60% progressed to AD and 33% to VaD. Vascular risk factors and CVD may influence the development of MCI and the rate of progression to dementia.     

Diagnostic Accuracy of the Chinese Version of the Trail‐Making Test for Screening Cognitive Impairment

Background/Objectives

The Trail‐Making Test (TMT), which is commonly used to measure executive function, consists of two components (TMT‐A and TMTB). There is a lack of normative TMT data for Chinese elderly adults. This study aimed to evaluate the validity of the TMT in screening for cognitive impairment.

Design

2,294 Chinese‐speaking adults aged 50 to 85: 1,026 with normal cognition (NC), 462 with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), 108 with Alzheimer's disease (AD), 113 with vascular mild cognitive impairment (VaMCI), 121 with vascular dementia (VaD), 282 with uncertain types of dementia, and 15 with mixed dementia. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis was performed to test the ability of TMT scores to differentiate between NC and cognitive impairment.

Results

Age, education, and sex were significantly associated with TMT completion time. The TMT‐A exhibited sensitivity of 77.8% and specificity of 92.0% with cut‐off value of 98.5 seconds for discriminating AD from NC. The TMT‐B had sensitivity of 83.3% and specificity of 91.8% with a cut‐off value of 188.5 seconds for discriminating AD from NC. The TMT‐A had sensitivity of 85.7% and specificity of 81.6% for discriminating NC from VaD with a cut‐off value of 77.5 seconds, and the TMT‐s had sensitivity of 81.6% and specificity of 83.9% with a cut‐off value of 147.5 seconds. The TMT had less sensitivity distinguishing MCI from NC.

Conclusion

The Chinese version of the TMT is reliable for detecting AD or VaD but poor at distinguishing MCI from NC.     

Clock drawing testing and diffusion tensor imaging among vascular dementia versus Alzheimer's disease

PurposeTo assess the clock drawing testing (CDT) and diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging (DT-MRI) differences between probable Alzheimer's dementia (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD) and the CDT correlation with the DT-MRI.Subjects and methodsElderly patients presenting at the Geriatric outpatient clinic-Ain Shams University Hospitals, Egypt over a period of 6 months were recruited for the study. Tools of assessment including activities of daily living, geriatric depression scale-15 items, Mini-mental status examination, and Clock drawing test using Shulman et al. scoring system were applied to all participants. Diagnosis of dementia and its subtypes was confirmed using DSM-IV criteria. From the assessed subjects, thirty participants; ten cases of probable AD, ten cases of VaD and ten controls, were randomly chosen for assessment using DT-MRI, where apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC), and fractional anisotropy (FA), were evaluated in 15 regions of interest in the cerebral hemispheres.ResultsVaD cases showed significantly worse performance in CDT than AD cases with more prevalence of spacing errors among them. CDT had significant correlation with age, MMSE and ADL. Dementia was associated with increased ADC and decreased FA in DT-MRI. VaD had lower FA than AD. CDT was significantly correlated with white matter integrity of several areas on DT-MRI.ConclusionCDT differs among VaD and AD with a range of radiological correlations. DT-MRI is a sensitive and discriminative technique for evaluation of patients with dementia including probable AD and VaD. Larger studies are needed for establishing reference ranges.     

Prevalence of mild cognitive impairment and its subtypes in community-dwelling residents aged 65 years or older in Guangzhou,China

BackgroundPrevalence of mild cognitive impairment (MCI) has been reported substantial variations, and mostly in Western countries. Less is known about MCI in the south of China. The study is to estimate the prevalence of MCI and its subtypes in residents aged 65 year or older in community-dwelling residents of Guangzhou, China.MethodsThe study was a community-based, cross-sectional study conducted in rural and urban areas of Guangzhou between April and October 2009. Eight communities were randomly selected using a cluster sampling method. Each elderly was interviewed with Montreal Cognitive Assessment, the Mini-Mental state examination, Auditory Verbal Learning Test, the Clinical Dementia Rating scale et al. MCI was classified as amnestic MCI (a-MCI) or nonamnestic MCI (na-MCI).Results2427 individuals were contacted, but in-person interviews were conducted with 2111 participants. 299 participants with MCI were identified. The prevalence of MCI, a-MCI and na-MCI was 14.2%, 12.2%, 2.0% respectively. The prevalence of MCI and a-MCI increased with age, decreased with education level, and was higher in rural areas than in urban areas. The difference of prevalence of MCI and a-MCI between women with men wasn't statistically significant(MCIχ2 = 1.0, OR 0.9, 95%CI = 0.6-1.2; a-MCIχ2 = 1.0, OR 0.9, 95%CI = 0.6–1.2), when controlling for education by logistic regression analysis.ConclusionsThe results suggest that 14.2% of elderly individuals are affected by MCI in Guangzhou, China. And MCI was dominated by a-MCI. The prevalence of MCI and a-MCI increased with age, decreased with education level, and was higher in the rural population compared to the urban population.     

Functional performance of Alzheimer's disease and vascular dementia in southern Taiwan

This study investigated the functional performance of two major subtypes of dementia, Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia (VaD), by the Functional Independence Measure (FIM), and to understand the need for assistance in performing activities of daily living. The subjects comprised 64 AD and 21 VaD patients who were recruited from two epidemiologic studies of dementia with a total of 3,931 community residents aged 65 years and above in southern Taiwan. The results showed that the severity of dementia was similar between the two groups. The mean score for AD was 82.7 and for VaD was 56.5 for total FIM (p < 0.05), 61.6 and 41.7 for the motor dimension (p < 0.05), and 21.1 and 15.7 for the cognitive dimension (p < 0.05). There were significant differences (p < 0.01) between AD and VaD in six FIM items and borderline or marginal significance (p < 0.05) in most of the FIM items. For AD patients, stairs, lower dressing, bathing, and tub/shower transfer were the most difficult items in the motor dimension, and it was memory in the cognitive dimension. For VaD patients, bathing, upper and lower dressing, and grooming were the most difficult items in the motor dimension, and it was problem solving in the cognitive dimension. VaD patients were more dependent on all FIM items and required more assistance than AD patients. The functional performances of dementia patients were significantly associated with dementia severity and subtypes, together accounting for 40% of the variability in total FIM. In conclusion, most dementia patients are dependent in daily activities and different types and severity of dementia lead to different disability profiles; individualized care is, therefore, most appropriate.     

Association between dementia and midlife risk factors: the Radiation Effects Research Foundation Adult Health Study

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the association between midlife risk factors and the development of vascular dementia (VaD) or Alzheimer's disease (AD) 25 to 30 years later. DESIGN: A prevalence study within a longitudinal cohort study. SETTING: Subjects in the Adult Health Study (a prospective cohort study begun in 1958) have been followed through biennial medical examinations in Hiroshima, Japan. PARTICIPANTS: One thousand seven hundred seventy-four subjects in Hiroshima, Japan born before September 1932 (1,660 with no dementia, 114 with dementia (51 with AD, and 38 with VaD) diagnosed from 1992 to 1997 according to Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition criteria). MEASUREMENTS: The subjects were examined for effect on dementia of sex, age, education, atomic bomb radiation dose, and midlife factors associated with risk (smoking, alcohol intake, physical activity, dietary habits, systolic blood pressure (SBP), body mass index, and history of diabetes mellitus) that had been evaluated in 1965-1970. RESULTS: VaD prevalence increased significantly with age, higher SBP, and lower milk intake. The odds ratios of VaD for age (in 5-year increments), SBP (10 mmHg increments), and milk intake (almost daily/less than four times a week) were 1.29, 1.33, and 0.35, respectively. The risk factors for VaD were compatible with the risk factors for stroke in this study population. AD prevalence increased significantly with age and lower education. Other midlife factors and radiation dose did not show any significant association with VaD or AD. CONCLUSION: Increased SBP and low milk intake in midlife were associated with VaD detected 25 to 30 years later. Early behavioral control of the risk factors for vascular disease might reduce the risk of dementia.     

Depression as prognostic factor: 6 months follow-up in a geriatric institution

Depression in the elderly and especially in the demented elderly is common, but it is unclear to what extent depression affects the prognosis of dementia. We performed a 6 months follow-up on the elderly to evaluate the effect of depression on the prognosis of dementia. Among the residents in a Korean geriatric institution, a total of 141 elderly residents were included in this study. Those residents who had geriatric depression scale (GDS) scores over 20 were considered as having depression. The subjects were assessed at baseline and at 6 months later with the Korean Mini-Mental State Examination (K-MMSE), Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) and Barthel index (BI). For all the 141 subjects, the changes of the K-MMSE, CDR and BI scores were first compared between the depressed and non-depressed groups. Then, for the 58 depressed subjects subdivided into three groups (36 subjects in the non-demented group, 14 subjects in the Alzheimer disease (AD) group and 8 subjects in the vascular dementia (VaD) group), the changes of the scores among the three groups were compared. For all subjects, the changes of the K-MMSE and CDR scores were more severe in the depressed group than in the non-depressed group. For the 58 depressed subjects, the changes were significantly different among the three groups (p=0.02 for the K-MMSE, p<0.001 for the CDR), and the changes were the most severe in the VaD group. For the elderly, depression has a significant influence on the cognitive deterioration. Moreover, the effect of depression on the cognitive dysfunction and on the prognosis of dementia is more severe in the demented elderly, and especially for the VaD patients.     

The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment

OBJECTIVES: To develop a 10-minute cognitive screening tool (Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA) to assist first-line physicians in detection of mild cognitive impairment (MCI), a clinical state that often progresses to dementia. DESIGN: Validation study. SETTING: A community clinic and an academic center. PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-four patients meeting MCI clinical criteria supported by psychometric measures, 93 patients with mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) (Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score > or =17), and 90 healthy elderly controls (NC). MEASUREMENTS: The MoCA and MMSE were administered to all participants, and sensitivity and specificity of both measures were assessed for detection of MCI and mild AD. RESULTS: Using a cutoff score 26, the MMSE had a sensitivity of 18% to detect MCI, whereas the MoCA detected 90% of MCI subjects. In the mild AD group, the MMSE had a sensitivity of 78%, whereas the MoCA detected 100%. Specificity was excellent for both MMSE and MoCA (100% and 87%, respectively). CONCLUSION: MCI as an entity is evolving and somewhat controversial. The MoCA is a brief cognitive screening tool with high sensitivity and specificity for detecting MCI as currently conceptualized in patients performing in the normal range on the MMSE.