N-methyl-D-aspartate-induced excitotoxicity in adult rat retina is antagonized by single systemic injection of MK-801

Intravitreal injection of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) produced a substantial damage to the adult rat retina that was largely restricted to inner retinal layers, including the ganglion cell layer (GCL), inner nuclear layer (INL), inner, and outer plexiform layers. This retinal damage was significantly reduced by a systemic injection of a low dose of MK-801 (0.5 mg/kg), a potent NMDA-receptor antagonist. This neuroprotection was dose dependent and was most effective when the antagonist was given 1 h before NMDA insult. An intraperitoneal injection of 0.5 mg/kg MK-801 provided a virtually complete protection to the retina to the NMDA-induced toxicity, as indicated quantitatively by the number of DiI-filled retinal ganglion cells, the number of cells in the GCL and INL that undergo DNA fragmentation, and the edematous changes in retinal thickness. A post-lesion administration of MK-801 was still able to provide an effective neuroprotective effect to the retina, but this protection was lost when MK-801 was given 4 h after NMDA exposure. The current results indicate a therapeutic potential of systemic application of MK-801 in protecting the adult rat retina from neurologic disorders related to excessive activation of NMDA receptors.     

大鼠纹状体中间神经元对兴奋毒性损伤特征性反应的形态学证实

目的兴奋毒性是导致中枢神经元死亡的主要因素之一。为此,本实验旨在形态学探察证实纹状体不同类型中间神经元对兴奋毒性损害因素的特征性反应。方法借助喹啉酸(QA)兴奋毒性损伤模型、组织化学和免疫组织化学方法探察证实纹状体损伤区不同类型中间神经元的形态和数量变化。实验数据以SPSS软件统计分析。结果①纹状体损伤区神经元的丢失显示不同的形式;即在损伤灶中央区绝大部分神经元均显著减少;在过渡区中等大小的神经元严重损害,一些大体积、组织化学深染色的神经元仍然幸存。②五种中间神经元的免疫组化结果显示在纹状体损伤中央区中间神经元完全丢失,但具有特征性变化的是过渡区,该区域中间神经元胞体数量变化不明显,而轴突出现大量的增生性变化,尤其是Cr最为显著,其表现为密集纤维网络的形成及大量的串珠样变化。结论纹状体中间神经元对兴奋毒性损伤的反应程度与受累区域相关,损伤过渡区中间神经元轴突形态和数量显示增生特征性的变化。结果提示过渡区可能是决定中间神经元生存和死亡的关键部位,以及中间神经元可能牵涉到纹状体兴奋毒性损伤的病理机制。     

Parvalbumin-containing interneurons of the human cerebral cortex express nicotinic acetylcholine receptor proteins

Cholinergic fibers from the basal forebrain are known to contact cholinoceptive cortical pyramidal neurons. Recent electrophysiological studies have revealed that nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are also present in human cerebrocortical interneurons. A direct visualization of nicotinic receptor subunits in cortical interneurons has, however, not yet been performed. We have applied double-immunofluorescence using antibodies against parvalbumin --a marker for the Chandelier and basket cell subpopulation of interneurons--and to the alpha4 and alpha7 subunit proteins of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. The vast majority of the parvalbuminergic interneurons was immunoreactive for the alpha4 and the alpha7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Provided these receptors would be functional--as suggested by recent electrophysiological findings--the connectivity pattern of cholinergic afferents appears much more complex than thought before. Not only direct cholinergic impact on cortical projection neurons but also the indirect modulation of these by cholinergic corticopetal fibers contacting intrinsic cortical cells would be possible.     

AMPA receptor subunit expression in the cuneate nucleus of adult squirrel monkeys after peripheral nerve injury

The primate somatosensory system provides an excellent model system with which to investigate adult neural plasticity. Here, we report immunohistochemical staining data for the GluR1 and GluR2/3 AMPA receptor subunits in the cuneate nucleus of adult squirrel monkeys one week after median nerve compression. These data are compared to subunit changes in the area 3b cortex of the same animals. We report differences between control and deprived brainstem implying that deprivation induced changes in subunit expression mirror those reported in the cortex. There are significant increases in GluR1 receptor subunit staining intensity and significant decreases in GluR2/3 receptor subunit staining intensity. This pattern of expression resembles receptor configurations reported in developing sensory systems. Taken together, these results suggest that the brainstem and the cortex initially progress through a phase of developmental recapitulation prior to the onset of NMDA mediated adult somatosensory reorganization.     

Role of glutamate in the regulation of the outgrowth and motility of neurites from mouse spinal cord neurons in culture

The excitatory amino acid glutamate has been shown to be toxic to a number of neuronal cell types both in vitro and in vivo. It has also been shown to be capable of controlling the development of neurons grown in vitro. Using time-lapse video microscopy techniques the effects of glutamate on the rate of neurite outgrowth and growth cone motility were examined on cultured mouse spinal cord neurons. Concentrations in the range of 1 to 100 µ M caused a significant inhibition of neurite outgrowth and concentrations of 10 and 100 µ M significantly inhibited growth cone activity. In addition it was shown that the kainate/AMPA receptor antagonist (±)3-(2-carbvoxypiperazin-4-yl)-propyl-l-phosphonic acid, but not the NMDA receptor antagonist 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione, was capable of blocking the inhibitory actions of glutamate on both outgrowth and motility. These results show that, at least in the culture system employed, glutamate might have a role in regulating neuronal development and function.     

NMDA and AMPA receptors contribute to the nicotinic cholinergic excitation of CA1 interneurons in the rat hippocampus

In the hippocampus, glutamatergic inputs to pyramidal neurons and interneurons are modulated by alpha7* and alpha3beta4* nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs), respectively, present in glutamatergic neurons. This study examines how nicotinic AMPA, and NMDA receptor nAChR activities are integrated to regulate the excitability of CA1 stratum radiatum (SR) interneurons in rat hippocampal slices. At resting membrane potentials and in the presence of extracellular Mg2+ (1 mM), nicotinic agonists triggered in SR interneurons excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSCs) that had two components: one mediated by AMPA receptors, and the other by NMDA receptors. As previously shown, nicotinic agonist-triggered EPSCs resulted from glutamate released by activation of alpha3beta4* nAChRs in glutamatergic neurons/fibers synapsing directly onto the neurons under study. The finding that CNQX caused more inhibition of nicotinic agonist-triggered EPSCs than expected from the blockade of postsynaptic AMPA receptors indicated that this nicotinic response also depended on the AMPA receptor activity in the glutamatergic neurons synapsing onto the interneuron under study. Nicotinic agonists always triggered action potentials in CA1 SR interneurons. In most interneurons, these action potentials resulted from activation of somatodendritic AMPA receptors and alpha7* nAChRs. In interneurons expressing somatodendritic alpha4beta2* nAChRs, activation of these receptors caused sufficient membrane depolarization to remove the Mg2+-induced block of somatodendritic NMDA receptors; in these neurons, nicotinic agonist-triggered action potentials were partially dependent on NMDA receptor activation. Removing extracellular Mg2+ or clamping the neuron at positive membrane potentials revealed the existence of a tonic NMDA current in SR interneurons that was unaffected by nAChR activation or inhibition. Thus integration of the activities of nAChRs, NMDA, and AMPA receptors in different compartments of CA1 neurons contributes to the excitability of CA1 SR interneurons.     

Extracellular concentrations of aspartate and glutamate in rat neostriatum following chemical stimulation of frontal cortex

Summary Extracellular concentrations of excitatory amino acids in the neostriatum of anaesthetized rats were studied by in vivo microdialysis and the influence of chemical stimulation of the neocortex assessed. Administration of gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) antagonists to the neocortex evoked an increase in the extracellular concentration of aspartate (to 315 and 210% of basal values for microinfusion and topical application, respectively), but not of extracellular glutamate. Such selectivity was also found in response to N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA, 348% increase in extracellular aspartate concentration). Yet co-administration of NMDA with GABA antagonists increased the extracellular concentration of glutamate (to 278% of basal values) as well as aspartate (to 611% of basal values). The results suggest that either the activated neurons are hypoglycemic or hypoxic, or that aspartate is the major neurotransmitter of corticostriatal neurons.     

三七总皂甙对脑出血大鼠前脑兴奋性氨基酸受体GluR2表达的作用

目的：研究三七总皂甙对脑出血大鼠前脑兴奋性氨基酸受体AMPA受体亚基GluR2表达的作用。方法：用免疫组织化学法观察胶原酶诱导的脑出血大鼠前脑内GluR2在给药组和对照组的表达变化。结果：脑出血后大鼠前脑病灶内部GluR2表达呈阴性,海马很少表达,但病灶周围和同侧皮质神经元的表达增强。给药组在皮层、病灶周围阳性细胞增多,反应强度增强。结论：三七总皂甙对GluR2阳性表达有增强作用,从而发挥对受损神经元的保护作用。     

NMDA receptor antagonists reduce medial,but not lateral,perforant path-evoked EPSPs in dentate gyrus of rat hippocampal slice

Summary NMDA receptor antagonists produced differential effects on medial and lateral perforant path-evoked excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) recorded in the dentate gyrus molecular layer of hippocampal slices. D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (D(-)APV) and 3-[(±)-2-carboxypiperazin-4-yl]-propyl-1-phosphonic acid (CPP) significantly reduced the peak amplitude and total area, but not the initial negative slope, of the medial perforant path-evoked EPSP. Neither antagonist affected any component of the lateral perforant path-evoked EPSP. In contrast, population spikes evoked by stimulation of either pathway were depressed.     

Glutamate,but not aspartate,is enriched in trigeminothalamic tract terminals and associated with their synaptic vesicles in the rat nucleus submedius

To examine the possible roles of glutamate and aspartate as neurotransmitters in the nucleus submedius (Sm) of rats, the distributions of these amino acids were examined by electron microscopic immunogold labeling. High levels of glutamate were detected in trigeminothalamic tract terminals anterogradely labeled with horseradish peroxidase conjugates. These terminals also displayed a positive correlation between the densities of synaptic vesicles and gold particles signaling glutamate. In contrast, aspartate levels in such terminals were low and displayed no correlation with the density of synaptic vesicles. Terminals of presumed cortical origin contained the highest estimated levels of glutamate, but the positive correlation between glutamate signal and synaptic vesicle density did not reach statistical significance, presumably due to technical factors. The latter terminals also contained relatively high levels of aspartate, though without any correlation to synaptic vesicle density. The present findings provide strong support for glutamate, but not aspartate, as a trigeminothalamic tract neurotransmitter responsible for the fast synaptic transmission of nociceptive signals to neurons in the rat nucleus submedius. Aspartate presumably serves metabolic roles in these terminals. With respect to terminals of presumed cortical origin, our data are not at odds with the notion that also these terminals use glutamate as their neurotransmitter. Our findings do not support a neurotransmitter role for aspartate in the latter terminals, although such a role cannot be entirely refuted.     

Morphology of identified relay cells and interneurons in the dorsal lateral geniculate nucleus of the rat

Summary The morphology of neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the rat has been examined in both Golgi impregnated and in horseradish peroxidase (HRP) filled material. Two major classes of neurons are seen in Golgi material which encompass the variety of cells described in previous reports. Cells of one group (class A) are routinely labelled by injections of HRP into the visual cortex or optic radiations. This group also displays some morphological variation which may be related to the presence of parallel information channels in the retino-fugal pathway, but clear subgroups cannot be identified on the basis of morphological criteria alone. Cells of the other group (class B) are not labelled by HRP injections into visual cortex or the optic radiations, and are probably local circuit interneurons.     

Structural requirements for activation of excitatory amino acid receptors in the rat spinal cord in vitro

Summary The conformational requirements for activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and quisqualate (QUIS) excitatory amino acid receptors on rat spinal neurones in vitro have been examined using a number of conformationally restricted compounds related to L-glutamate (L-GLU). The excitants were assigned to a receptor type on the basis of their susceptibility to blockade by D (-)-2-amino-5-phosphonvalerate (DAPV) and kynurenate (KYNA). When iontophoretically applied to unidentified neurones in the dorsal horn of spinal cord slices maintained in vitro, three of the isomers of 1-amino-1,3-cyclopentane dicarboxylate (ACPD) evoked excitations which were DAPV-sensitive and therefore were probably elicited via NMDA receptors. The fourth isomer (D-trans-(1R,3S)-ACPD) resembled quinolinate (QUIN) in its actions, and differed from both NMDA and QUIS. Several pyridine derivatives in addition to QUIN were tested, and both the 2,5- and 2,6-pyridine dicarboxylates evoked excitations which, like those produced by QUIS and L-GLU, were largely unaffected by both DAPV and KYNA and thus appeared due to activation of the QUIS receptor. 2,4-Pyridine dicarboxylate acted as a weak and unselective antagonist of amino acid-induced excitations. The results support an earlier conclusion that compounds reacting with the NMDA receptor do so in an extended configuration whereas the QUIS receptor has a more folded template. The possibility that QUIN reacts with a receptor different from those activated by other amino acids is considered.     

兴奋性氨基酸抑制胎鼠神经干细胞的增殖

目的：研究兴奋性氨基酸对体外培养胎鼠神经干细胞（NSCs）增殖的影响。 方法:体外分离、培养与鉴定SD胚胎大鼠脑室下带(SVZ)神经干细胞，利用MTT比色法测定兴奋性氨基酸N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸（NMDA）和谷氨酸（Glu）对细胞增殖的作用。 结果:成功分离出具有胚胎源性的神经干细胞，NMDA和Glu均能导致神经干细胞的增殖活性下降。 结论:培养的SVZ区域细胞具有自我更新和多分化潜能，是中枢神经系统干细胞，兴奋性氨基酸能有效地抑制神经干细胞的增殖。     

Reduced aspartate release from rat hippocampal synaptosomes loaded with Clostridial toxin light chain by electroporation: evidence for an exocytotic mechanism

Aspartate can be released from certain hippocampal pathways along with glutamate or GABA. Although aspartate immunoreactivity has been localized to synaptic vesicles and aspartate release is Ca(2+)-dependent, there has been no clear evidence favoring an exocytotic mechanism. In particular, pretreatment with Clostridial toxins has not consistently inhibited aspartate release, even when release of glutamate from the same tissue samples was markedly inhibited. To address this issue directly, rat hippocampal synaptosomes were permeabilized transiently by electroporation in the presence of active or inactivated Clostridial toxin light chains. Loading rat hippocampal synaptosomes with the active light chain of tetanus toxin or of botulinum neurotoxins A, B or C reduced the K(+)-evoked release of aspartate at least as much as that of glutamate. These results confirm that aspartate is released by exocytosis in rat hippocampus.     

Differential expression of NMDA and AMPA receptor subunits in rat dorsal and ventral hippocampus

Several studies have demonstrated anatomical and functional segregation along the dorsoventral axis of the hippocampus. This study examined the possible differences in the AMPA and NMDA receptor subunit composition and receptor binding parameters between dorsal and ventral hippocampus, since several evidence suggest diversification of NMDA receptor-dependent processes between the two hippocampal poles. Three sets of rat dorsal and ventral hippocampus slices were prepared: 1) transverse slices for examining a) the expression of the AMPA (GluRA, GluRB, GluRC) and NMDA (NR1, NR2A, NR2B) subunits mRNA using in situ hybridization, b) the protein expression of NR2A and NR2B subunits using Western blotting, and c) by using quantitative autoradiography, c(1)) the specific binding of the AMPA receptor agonist [(3)H]AMPA and c(2)) the specific binding of the NMDA receptor antagonist [(3)H]MK-801, 2) longitudinal slices containing only the cornus ammonis 1 (CA1) region for performing [(3)H]MK-801 saturation experiments and 3) transverse slices for electrophysiological measures of NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic potentials. Ventral compared with dorsal hippocampus showed for NMDA receptors: 1) lower levels of mRNA and protein expression for NR2A and NR2B subunits in CA1 with the ratio of NR2A /NR2B differing between the two poles and 2) lower levels of [(3)H]MK-801 binding in the ventral hippocampus, with the lowest value observed in CA1, apparently resulting from a decreased receptor density since the B(max) value was lower in ventral hippocampus. For the AMPA receptors CA1 our results showed in ventral hippocampus compared with dorsal hippocampus: 1) lower levels of mRNA expression for GluRA, GluRB and GluRC subunits, which were more pronounced in CA1 and in dentate gyrus region and 2) lower levels of [(3)H]AMPA binding. Intracellular recordings obtained from pyramidal neurons in CA1 showed longer NMDA receptor-mediated excitatory postsynaptic potentials in ventral hippocampus compared with dorsal hippocampus. In conclusion, the differences in the subunit mRNA and protein expression of NMDA and AMPA receptors as well as the lower density of their binding sites observed in ventral hippocampus compared with dorsal hippocampus suggest that the glutamatergic function differs between the two hippocampal poles. Consistently, the lower value of the ratio NR2A/NR2B seen in the ventral part would imply that the ventral hippocampus NMDA receptor subtype is functionally different than the dorsal hippocampus subtype, as supported by our intracellular recordings. This could be related to the lower ability of ventral hippocampus for long-term synaptic plasticity and to the higher involvement of the NMDA receptors in the epileptiform discharges, observed in ventral hippocampus compared with dorsal hippocampus.     

吗啡诱导的CPP复燃大鼠前额叶皮层和海马区EAAT3蛋白表达的变化

目的: 观察吗啡诱导的条件性位置偏爱(CPP)复燃大鼠前额叶皮层和海马区兴奋性氨基酸转运蛋白3(EAAT3)的表达变化,探讨前脑皮层及海马区EAAT3在阿片类药物复吸过程中的作用。方法: 成年雄性SD大鼠40只,随机分为对照组(control)、CPP建立(Es)、消退(Ex)、复燃2 h(Re2)、复燃4 h(Re4)组,每组8只。腹腔注射吗啡(10 mg/kg)连续10 d,建立CPP模型;停止给药使CPP逐渐消退;单次腹腔注射吗啡 2.5 mg/kg诱导已消退的CPP复燃。Western blotting检测各组大鼠前额叶皮层和海马区EAAT3蛋白表达变化。 结果: (1)腹腔注射恒定剂量的吗啡10 mg/kg, Es组大鼠在伴药箱的停留时间比control组明显延长(P<0.05),成功建立CPP模型;待CPP消退后,吗啡2.5 mg/kg腹腔注射诱发Re2和Re4组大鼠在伴药箱的停留时间再次比control组明显延长(P<0.05),CPP复燃。(2)Es组前额叶皮层EAAT3比control组表达减少(P<0.05),CPP消退的Ex组表达回升,在Re4组表达再次减少(P<0.05)。(3)海马区EAAT3在各组表达水平未见明显变化(P>0.05);而Es、Ex组海马CA1区EAAT3比control组表达明显升高(P<0.05)。 结论: 吗啡诱导CPP复燃时,前额叶皮层EAAT3的蛋白表达水平降低,重现CPP建立时的变化,提示阿片类药物复吸行为的形成可能与前脑皮层EAAT3的表达减少有关。     

Function of non-NMDA receptors and NMDA receptors in synaptic responses to natural somatosensory stimulation in the ventrobasal thalamus

Summary Sensory synaptic responses of rat ventrobasal thalamus neurones were challenged with iontophoretic applications of the excitatory amino acid antagonists CNQX and CPP. CNQX, applied with currents which were selective for non-NMDA receptors, antagonised responses of VB neurones to both 10 ms and 2000 ms air jet stimulation of the peripheral receptive field. In contrast, CPP only antagonised the latter type of response. These results suggest a differential involvement of excitatory amino acid receptors in sensory synaptic transmission to the ventrobasal thalamus, with an initial synaptic component being mediated by non-NMDA receptors (including kainate receptors), and a further NMDA receptor-mediated component being manifested upon maintained sensory stimulation. The expression of this latter component appears to be largely dependent upon the integrity of the non-NMDA receptor-mediated component.     

Localization of glutamate,glutaminase, aspartate and aspartate aminotransferase in the rat midbrain periaqueductal gray

Summary Glutamate and aspartate are putative excitatory neurotransmitters in the central nervous system. The present study utilized novel monoclonal antibodies against fixative-modified glutamate and aspartate and polyclonal antisera against the amino acid synthesizing enzymes, glutaminase and aspartate aminotransferase, to analyze the distribution of these amino acids in the rodent midbrain periaqueductal gray. Glutamate-, aspartate-, glutaminase- and aspartate aminotransferase-like immunoreactive neurons, fibers and processes are present throughout the rostrocaudal length of the periaqueductal gray. Glutamate- and glutaminase-like immunoreactive neurons displayed a similar homogeneous pattern of distribution, being localized predominantly to the lateral and dorsal subdivisions of the periaqueductal gray. Co-localization experiments suggest that glutamate and glutaminase are in fact co-contained within the same PAG neurons. Aspartate aminotransferase-like immunoreactive neurons were distributed in a pattern similar to glutamate and glutaminase with the exception that fewer cells were stained in the dorsocaudal and the rostral third of the PAG. Aspartate-like immunoreactive neurons were less numerous than glutamate-like immunoreactive cells and were located in the lateral aspect of the PAG. These results demonstrate a specific and distinct distribution of glutamate and aspartate immunoreactive neurons and support recent data suggesting that glutamate and aspartate serve as excitatory neurotransmitters in the PAG.     

Postnatal development and migration of cholecystokinin-immunoreactive interneurons in rat hippocampus

The development of cholecystokinin-immunoreactive (CCK-IR) interneurons in the rat hippocampus was studied using immunocytochemical methods at the light and electron microscopic levels from early (P0-P8) to later postnatal (P12-P20) periods. The laminar distribution of CCK-IR cell bodies changed considerably during the studied period, which is suggested to be due to migration. CCK-IR cells appear to move from the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus to their final destination at the stratum granulosum/hilus border, and tend to concentrate in the distal third of stratum radiatum in CA1-3. The density of CCK-IR cells is rapidly decreasing during the first 4 postnatal days without any apparent reduction in their total number, therefore it is due to the pronounced growth of hippocampal volume in this period. Axons of CCK-IR interneurons formed symmetrical synapses already at P0, and by far the predominant targets were dendrites of presumed principal cells in all subfields of the hippocampus. These axon arbors began to concentrate around pyramidal cell bodies only at P8, at earlier ages CCK-IR axons crossed stratum pyramidale at right angles, and gave rise to varicose collaterals only outside this layer. The dendrites and somata of CCK-IR cells received synapses already at P0, but those were mostly symmetrical, apart from a few immature asymmetrical synapses. At P4, mature asymmetrical synapses with considerable amounts of synaptic vesicles were already commonly encountered. Thus, the innervation of CCK-IR interneurons apparently develops later than their output synapses, suggesting that they may be able to release transmitter before receiving any considerable excitatory drive. We conclude that CCK-IR cells represent one, if not the major, interneuron type that assists in the maturation of glutamatergic synapses (activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors) via GABAergic depolarization of principal cell dendrites, and may contribute to the generation of giant depolarizing potentials. CCK-IR cells will change their function to perisomatic hyperpolarizing inhibition, as glutamatergic transmission in the network becomes operational.     

Expression of the eight AMPA receptor subunit genes in the developing central nervous system and sensory organs of zebrafish.

The AMPA type glutamate receptors mediate the majority of fast synaptic transmission in the vertebrate nervous system. Whereas mammals have four subunit genes, Gria1-4, zebrafish has retained a duplicated set of eight genes named gria1-4a and b. We give here a detailed overview of the expression patterns of all eight zebrafish subunits within the developing central nervous system and sensory organs at 24, 48, and 72 hr after fertilization. Expression domains include distinct neuronal subsets in the developing forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, and spinal cord, as well as in the ganglion- and inner nuclear layers of the retina. As a general rule, each pair of duplicated gria genes is differentially expressed, indicating subfunctionalization of AMPA receptor subunit expression in the teleost lineage. Our findings suggest that zebrafish can serve as a useful model system to investigate the role of AMPA receptors and their differential expression in the vertebrate nervous system.