Physician staffing pattern in intensive care units: Have we cracked the code?

Intensive care is slowly being recognized as a separate medical specialization. Physicians, called intensivists, are being specially trained to manage intensive care units (ICUs) and provide focused, high quality care to critically ill patients. However, these ICUs were traditionally managed by primary physicians who used to admit patients in ICUs under their own care. The presence of specially trained intensivists in these ICUs has started a “turf” war. In spite of the availability of overwhelming evidence that intensivists-based ICUs can provide better patient care leading to improved outcome, there is hesitancy among hospital administrators and other policy makers towards adopting such a model. Major critical care societies and workgroups have recommended intensivists-based ICU models to care for critically ill patients, but even in developed countries, on-site intensivist coverage is lacking in a great majority of hospitals. Lack of funds and unavailability of skilled intensivists are commonly cited as the main reasons for not implementing intensivist-led ICU care in most of the ICUs. To provide optimal, comprehensive and skilled care to this severely ill patient population, it is imperative that a multi-disciplinary team approach must be adopted with intensivists as in-charge. Even though ICU organization and staffing may be determined by hospital policies and other local factors, all efforts must be made to attain the goal of having round-the-clock onsite intensivist coverage to ensure continuity of specialized care for all critically ill patients.     

Mechanical ventilation in critically ill cancer patients: outcome and utilisation of resources

Intensive care is increasingly being used in the management of cancer patients. It is important that a disproportionate share of special care resources is not expended on futile care of terminally ill patients. A requirement for mechanical ventilation has been stated to affect survival in cancer patients. The objectives of this study were to determine our hospital utilisation of ICU facilities and the prospects of a successful outcome in cancer patients with a need for ventilatory support. The Norwegian Radium Hospital is a 400-bed cancer hospital with a 12-bed combined postoperative and intensive care unit (PO/ICU). For each patient admitted to the PO/ICU, patient data including diagnosis, therapeutic interventions, use of resources and outcome are entered in a computerised database. We reviewed all 10,051 patients admitted during a 5-year period, focusing on the patients receiving ventilatory support. There were 347 patients who were treated with mechanical ventilation, 228 patients only for a short period postoperatively after extensive surgery. A further 119 patients (mean age 68 years, mean SAPS 33.5) were treated with mechanical ventilation for more than 24 h or died during treatment in the ICU; 65 patients (55%) were admitted after elective surgery, 24 (20%) after surgical emergencies and 30 (25%) after medical emergencies. Metastatic disease was present in 59% of them. These 119 patients comprised 1.18% of all patients admitted to the PO/ICU, but utilised 28% of all resources. They included 34 patients (29%) who died during the ICU stay, while 69 patients (58%) were still alive after 6 months. The ICU mortality in different groups was: surgical patients 24%, gynaecological patients 9%, oncological patients 63%. The mortality in the age group >70 years was 15%. The role of ICU facilities, including mechanical ventilation, is important for optimal supportive care in cancer patients. Our results indicate that this treatment modality should not generally be restricted in critically ill cancer patients. The quality of life of the patients who survived should be of interest to those involved in further medical and ethical decisions concerning the level of care in the ICU. Electronic publication: 12 January 1999     

Venous thromboembolism in critical illness in a community intensive care unit

BACKGROUND: Venous thromboembolism (VTE) can be a life-threatening complication of critical illness. Venous thromboembolism rates observed depend on the population studied, the screening modality used, and thromboprophylaxis prescribed. Few studies report on the rates of clinically diagnosed VTE in critically ill patients. The purpose of this study was to characterize the incidence of clinically diagnosed VTE, prophylactic strategies used, and diagnostic studies ordered in a critically ill population at a tertiary community intensive care unit (ICU), both during and after their ICU stay. METHODS: We did a retrospective chart review of 600 consecutive critically ill patients admitted to a tertiary community ICU. RESULTS: Fifty (8.3%) patients developed VTE over the course of their ICU and hospital stay (18 [3.0%] patients during their ICU stay and 32 [5.7% of 561 ICU survivors] patients after ICU discharge). By ICU admission diagnosis, most events occurred in neurosurgical patients, although this group comprised only 24.8% of the population. Across all subgroups, most VTE events occurred after ICU discharge. Intensive care unit patients received thromboprophylaxis 87.6% (95% confidence interval, 81.5-93.7) of the time spent in ICU. However, thromboprophylaxis was administered significantly less often after transfer to the ward compared with within the ICU (from 87.6% to 59.8%, P < .001). CONCLUSION: The rates of clinically diagnosed VTE rates in critically ill patients are substantial. Venous thromboembolism occurs before, during, and after ICU discharge. Continued vigilance and thromboprophylaxis are warranted across the continuum of critical illness.     

Development of septic shock and prognostic assessment in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease outside Wuhan,China

BACKGROUND: The study aims to illustrate the clinical characteristics and development of septic shock in intensive care unit (ICU) patients confirmed with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, and to perform a comprehensive analysis of the association between septic shock and clinical outcomes in critically ill patients with coronavirus disease (COVID-19). METHODS: Patients confirmed with SARS-CoV-2 infection, who were admitted to the ICU of the Third People’s Hospital of Shenzhen from January 1 to February 7, 2020, were enrolled. Clinical characteristics and outcomes were compared between patients with and without septic shock. RESULTS: In this study, 35 critically ill patients with COVID-19 were included. Among them, the median age was 64 years (interquartile range [IQR] 59-67 years), and 10 (28.4%) patients were female. The median ICU length of stay was 16 days (IQR 8-23 days). Three (8.6%) patients died during hospitalization. Nine (25.7%) patients developed septic shock in the ICU, and these patients had a significantly higher incidence of organ dysfunction and a worse prognosis than patients without septic shock. CONCLUSIONS: Septic shock is associated with a poor outcome in critically ill COVID-19 patients and is one of the hallmarks of the severity of patients receiving ICU care. A dysregulated immune response, uncontrolled inflammation, and coagulation disorders are strongly associated with the development and progression of COVID-19-related septic shock.     

Mortality and quality of life after intensive care for critical illness

Early and late mortality of 313 ICU patients and the quality of life of 118 long term ICU survivors was studied to assess the effectiveness of intensive care for critically ill patients. The survival rate at discharge from the ICU was 76%, falling to 61% at 6 months and to 58% at 1 year. A simplified acute physiology score (SAPS) was recorded on ICU admission, as well as age, length of ICU-stay and the number of complications during intensive care. Information on housing, drug use, hospital admissions, physical condition and functional status 2 years after ICU discharge was collected by means of a questionnaire. No changes in housing occurred, but drug use and the number of hospital admissions were significantly increased. In 21% of the patients a deteriorated physical condition was found, 77% remained unchanged and 2% were improved 2 years after ICU discharge, compared to their condition prior to the acute illness. Major functional impairment was found in 38% of the patients. Although the longterm physical condition and functional status correlated with SAPS and age on ICU admission, the best indicator for quality of life after intensive care proved to be the health status prior to the acute illness.     

Hyperglycaemia and mortality in critically ill patients

Objective To describe hyperglycaemia as a possible marker of morbidity and mortality in critically ill medical and surgical patients admitted to a multidisciplinary ICU.Design Prospective cohort study.Setting A 13-bed non-cardiac multidisciplinary ICU in a university hospital.Patients and participants Adult patients consecutively admitted to the ICU in a 6-month period. Patients with fewer than 2 days stay in the ICU and patients with known diabetes were excluded.Measurements and results At admission a registration form was filled in including demographic data, first and second day APACHE II scores, infections and daily maximum blood glucose level. In surgical patients, high maximum blood glucose level during the stay in ICU was correlated with increased mortality, morbidity and frequency of infection. In medical patients, we found a non-significant trend towards a correlation between hyperglycaemia and morbidity and mortality, respectively.Conclusions High blood glucose level during the stay in ICU was a marker of increased morbidity and mortality in critically ill surgical patients. In medical patients the same trend was found, but non-significant. The population of patients in the present study are heterogeneous and the results from surgical critically ill patients should not be generalised to medical patients.     

A cost‐effectiveness analysis of sunitinib in patients with metastatic renal cell carcinoma intolerant to or experiencing disease progression on immunotherapy: perspective of the Spanish National Health System

Aim: To investigate the cost‐effectiveness of sunitinib (50 mg/day, schedule 4/2) vs. best supportive care (BSC) in patients with cytokine‐refractory metastatic renal cell carcinoma (mRCC), from the perspective of the Spanish National Health Service. Material and Methods: A Markov model compared the cost‐effectiveness (taking into account drugs; medical visits; laboratory tests; X‐rays; terminal care; adverse event management) of sunitinib and BSC across three disease states: no progression, survival with progression and death from mRCC or other causes. Results: The monthly incremental cost‐effectiveness ratio (ICER) values for sunitinib treatment were €6073/progression‐free survival month, €25 199/life years and €34 196/quality‐adjusted life years (QALY) gained. In 95% of cases, the ICER/QALY values were below the accepted €45 000/QALY threshold. Efficacy and cost of sunitinib had the greatest impact on cost‐effectiveness. Conclusion: Sunitinib has a good cost‐effectiveness profile in mRCC. The cost per life year and QALY gained is affordable according to current effectiveness thresholds in developed countries.     

重症监护病房患者镇痛镇静的研究进展

镇痛镇静治疗已经成为重症监护病房中综合治疗的重要组成部分,可以消除或减轻患者的疼痛及不适,控制焦虑、躁动和谵妄,减轻应激反应,改善患者睡眠、诱导遗忘,提高机械通气的协调性,减轻医疗护理操作对患者造成的伤害性刺激,使危重患者处于舒适和安全的理想水平。本文对重症监护病房患者镇痛镇静的研究进展进行综述。     

Costs and cost-effectiveness of a telemedicine intensive care unit program in 6 intensive care units in a large health care system

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to estimate the costs and cost-effectiveness of a telemedicine intensive care unit (ICU) (tele-ICU) program.

Materials and Methods

We used an observational study with ICU patients cared for during the pre-tele-ICU period and ICU patients cared for during the post-tele-ICU period in 6 ICUs at 5 hospitals that are part of a large nonprofit health care system in the Gulf Coast region. We obtained data on a sample of 4142 ICU patients: 2034 in the pre-tele-ICU period and 2108 in the post-tele-ICU period. Economic outcomes were hospital costs, ICU costs and floor costs, measured for average daily costs, costs per case, and costs per patient.

Results

After the implementation of the tele-ICU, the hospital daily cost increased from $4302 to $5340 (24%); the hospital cost per case, from $21 967 to $31 318 (43%); and the cost per patient, from $20 231 to $25 846 (28%). Although the tele-ICU intervention was not cost-effective in patients with Simplified Acute Physiology Score II 50 or less, it was cost-effective in the sickest patients with Simplified Acute Physiology Score II more than 50 (17% of patients) because it decreased hospital mortality without increasing costs significantly.

Conclusions

Hospital administrators may conclude that a tele-ICU program aimed at the sickest patients is cost-effective.     

Comparative costing analysis of intensive care services between Hungary and United Kingdom

Objective The study presents the findings of the first National Intensive Care Cost Block Analysis in Hungary.Methods There were 13 Intensive Care Units (ICUs) involved in this study: 5 University Hospitals, 6 District County Hospitals and 2 City Hospitals. The annual costs of ICUs were measured by top-down approach based on Cost Block Method. Annual expenditure of 3 cost blocks was collected for year 2000: clinical support, consumables and staff costs. On top of the annual costs, we collected general ICU data and Top 10 drugs of each unit. Our data was compared to National Cost Block data of United Kingdom.Results There were 9313 patients involved in the study. The median (IQR) ICU occupancy rate was 67% (62–79), mortality was 21% (11–26). The mean cost per bed was 30,990 € (SD 12,573) and 144 € (SD 63,1) per patient day. Clinical support services were accounted for 9.6% of resources, consumables for 60.6% and staff costs for 29.8%.Conclusions Intensive care costs are very low in Hungary compared to other European countries. The difference is explained by the cheaper staff cost, but the lower number of nurses per ICU bed contributes as well.Electronic Supplementary Material Electronic supplementary material to this paper can be obtained by using the Springer Link server located at .     

The relationship between nursing skill mix and severity of illness of patients admitted in Australian and New Zealand intensive care units

BackgroundCritically ill patients in the intensive care environment require an appropriate nursing workforce to improve quality of care and patient outcomes. However, limited information exists as to the relationship between severity of illness and nursing skill mix in the intensive care.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to describe the variation in nursing skill mix across different hospital types and to determine if this was associated with severity of illness of critically ill patients admitted to adult intensive care units (ICUs) in Australia and New Zealand.Design & SettingA retrospective cohort study using the Australia and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Adult Patient Database (to provide information on patient demographics, severity of illness, and outcome) and the Critical Care Resources Registry (to provide information on annual nursing staffing levels and hospital type) from July 2014 to June 2020. Four hospital types (metropolitan, private, rural/regional, and tertiary) and three patient groups (elective surgical, emergency surgical, and medical) were examined.Main outcome measureThe main outcome measure was the proportion of critical care specialist registered nurses (RNs) expressed as a percentage of the full-time equivalent (FTE) of total RNs working within each ICU each year, as reported annually to the Critical Care Resources Registry.ResultsData were examined for 184 ICUs in Australia and New Zealand. During the 6-year study period, 770 747 patients were admitted to these ICUs. Across Australia and New Zealand, the median percentage of registered nursing FTE with a critical care qualification for each ICU (n = 184) was 59.1% (interquartile range [IQR] = 48.9–71.6). The percentage FTE of critical care specialist RNs was highest in private [63.7% (IQR = 52.6–78.2)] and tertiary ICUs [58.1% (IQR = 51.2–70.2)], followed by metropolitan ICUs [56.0% (IQR = 44.5–68.9)] with the lowest in rural/regional hospitals [55.9% (IQR = 44.9–70.0)]. In ICUs with higher percentage FTE of critical care specialist RNs, patients had higher severity of illness, most notably in tertiary and private ICUs. This relationship was persistent across all hospital types when examining subgroups of emergency surgical and medical patients and in multivariable analysis after adjusting for the type of hospital and relative percentage of each diagnostic group.ConclusionsIn Australian and New Zealand ICUs, the highest acuity patients are cared for by nursing teams with the highest percentage FTE of critical care specialist RNs. The Australian and New Zealand healthcare system has a critical care nursing workforce which scales to meet the acuity of ICU patients across Australia and New Zealand.     

Outcomes of critically ill cancer patients with Acinetobacter baumannii infection

AIM: To describe the intensive care unit(ICU) outcomes of critically ill cancer patients with Acinetobacter baumannii(AB) infection.METHODS: This was an observational study that included 23 consecutive cancer patients who acquired AB infections during their stay at ICU of the National Cancer Institute of Mexico(INCan), located in Mexico City. Data collection took place between January 2011, and December 2012. Patients who had AB infections before ICU admission, and infections that occurred during the first 2 d of ICU stay were excluded. Data were obtained by reviewing the electronic health record of each patient. This investigation was approved by the Scientific and Ethics Committees at INCan. Because of its observational nature, informed consent of the patients was not required.RESULTS: Throughout the study period, a total of 494 critically ill patients with cancer were admitted to the ICU of the INCan, 23(4.6%) of whom developed AB infections. Sixteen(60.9%) of these patients had hematologic malignancies. Most frequent reasons for ICU admission were severe sepsis or septic shock(56.2%) and postoperative care(21.7%). The respiratory tract was the most frequent site of AB infection(91.3%). The most common organ dysfunction observed in our group of patients were the respiratory(100%), cardiovascular(100%), hepatic(73.9%) and renal dysfunction(65.2%). The ICU mortality of patients with 3 or less organ system dysfunctions was 11.7%(2/17) compared with 66.6%(4/6) for the group of patients with 4 or more organ system dysfunctions(P = 0.021). Multivariate analysis identified blood lactate levels(BLL) as the only variable independently associated with inICU death(OR = 2.59, 95%CI: 1.04-6.43, P = 0.040). ICU and hospital mortality rates were 26.1% and 43.5%, respectively.CONCLUSION: The mortality rate in critically ill patients with both HM, and AB infections who are admitted to the ICU is high. The variable most associated with increased mortality was a BLL ≥ 2.6 mmol/L in the first day of stay in the ICU.     

Bowel management in the intensive care unit

The area of bowel care in the intensive care unit (ICU) is often overlooked in the holistic care of the critically ill individual. With the primary concern of optimising patients to preserve life the problem of bowel care has been given less priority. The guidelines included within this service improvement paper offer a simple approach to bowel care management with the use of an algorithm and visual display score to be used in conjunction with the algorithm. This was developed in the intensive care unit of the Royal Free Hospital, London and is presently in use.     

The effect of family-authored diaries on posttraumatic stress disorder in intensive care unit patients and their relatives: A randomised controlled trial (DRIP-study)

BackgroundCritical illness and mechanical ventilation may cause patients and their relatives to experience symptoms of posttraumatic stress, anxiety, and depression due to fragmentation of memories of their intensive care unit (ICU) stay. Intensive care diaries authored by nurses may help patients and relatives process the experience and reduce psychological problems after hospital discharge; however, as patients particularly appreciate diary entries made by their relatives, involving relatives in authoring the diary could prove beneficial.ObjectivesThe objective of this study was to explore the effect of a diary authored by a close relative for a critically ill patient.MethodsThe study was a multicenter, block-randomised, single-blinded, controlled trial conducted at four medical-surgical ICUs at two university hospitals and two regional hospitals. Eligible for the study were patients ≥18 years of age, undergoing mechanical ventilation for ≥24 h, staying in the ICU ≥48 h, with a close relative ≥18 years of age. A total of 116 relatives and 75 patients consented to participate. Outcome measures were scores of posttraumatic stress symptoms, anxiety, depression, and health-related quality of life three months after ICU discharge.ResultsRelatives had 26.3% lower scores of posttraumatic stress in the diary group than in the control group (95% confidence interval: 4.8–% to 52.2%). Patients had 11.2% lower scores of posttraumatic stress symptoms in the diary group (95% confidence interval: −15.7% to 46.8%). There were no differences between groups in depression, anxiety, or health-related quality of life.ConclusionA diary written by relatives for the ICU patient reduced the risk of posttraumatic stress symptoms in relatives. The diary had no effect on depression, anxiety, or health-related life quality. However, as the diary was well received by relatives and proved safe, the diary may be offered to relatives of critically ill patients during their stay in the ICU.     

非计划性入ICU患者的压力分析

目的：分析非计划性入重症监护室(Intensive care unit,ICU)患者的压力,以及不同年龄划分,不同家庭人均月收入划分,不同文化程度划分的非计划性入ICU患者的压力的影响。为非计划性入ICU患者制定有效的且具有针对性的护理措施提供科学依据。方法：将2013年8月至2014年5月非计划性入ICU患者50例进行压力分析,采用ICU环境压力源量表ICUESS测定。采用SPSS17.0软件对调查结果进行比较和分析。统计方法为方差分析。结果：研究组ICU环境压力源量表ICUESS评分显著高于常模组。非计划性入ICU患者中压力程度最大的前五条是“想念家人”,“口渴”,“不知道在哪儿”,“不能入睡”,“没有隐私”,其中 “不知道在哪儿”,“不能入睡”,“没有隐私”因素在以不同年龄划分,不同家庭人均月收入划分,不同文化程度划分非计划性入ICU患者的得分差异有统计学意义(p<0.05)。结论：护理人员应根据患者的文化程度、家庭收入等因素,不同程度的区别每一个病人,提供个体化、针对性的护理。该研究对于医务人员为非计划性入ICU患者制定有效的且具有针对性的护理措施提供科学依据。     

Body mass index

Objective To examine the association between body mass index (BMI) and mortality in adult intensive care unit (ICU) patients.Design A prospective multi-center study.Interventions None.Methods A cohort study (yielding the OUTCOMEREA database) was conducted over 2 years in 6 medical-surgical ICUs. In each participating ICU, the following were collected daily: demographic information, admission height and weight, comorbidities, severity scores (SAPS II, LOD, and SOFA), ICU and hospital lengths of stay, and ICU and hospital mortality rates.Results A total of 1,698 patients were examined and divided into 4 groups based on BMI: <18.5, 18.5–24.9, 25–29.9, and >30 kg/m². These groups differed significantly for age, gender, admission category (medical, scheduled surgery, unscheduled surgery), ICU and hospital lengths of stay, and comorbidities. Severity at admission and within the first 2 days was similar in the 4 groups, except for the SOFA score. Overall hospital mortality was 31.3% (532 out of 1,698 patients). By multivariate analysis, a BMI below 18.5 kg/m² was independently associated with increased mortality (odds ratio 1.63; 95% confidence intervals 1.11–2.39). None of the other BMI categories were associated with higher mortality and even a BMI>30 kg/m² was protective of mortality (odds ratio 0.60, 95% confidence intervals 0.40–0.88).Conclusions A low BMI was independently associated with higher mortality and a high BMI with lower mortality in this large cohort of critically ill patients. Since BMI is absent from currently available scoring systems, further studies are needed to determine whether adding BMI would improve the effectiveness of scores in predicting mortality.Electronic Supplementary Material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00134-003-2095-2.The members of the OUTCOMEREA study group are listed in the appendix.Financial support: OUTCOMEREA is supported by non-exclusive educational grants from Aventis Pharma, France, Wyeth, and the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS).     

Automatic quality improvement reports in the intensive care unit: One step closer toward meaningful use

AIM: To examine the feasibility and validity of electronic generation of quality metrics in the intensive care unit (ICU). METHODS: This minimal risk observational study was performed at an academic tertiary hospital. The Critical Care Independent Multidisciplinary Program at Mayo Clinic identified and defined 11 key quality metrics. These metrics were automatically calculated using ICU DataMart, a near-real time copy of all ICU electronic medical record (EMR) data. The automatic report was compared with data from a comprehensive EMR review by a trained investigator. Data was collected for 93 randomly selected patients admitted to the ICU during April 2012 (10% of admitted adult population). This study was approved by the Mayo Clinic Institution Review Board. RESULTS: All types of variables needed for metric calculations were found to be available for manual and electronic abstraction, except information for availability of free beds for patient-specific time-frames. There was 100% agreement between electronic and manual data abstraction for ICU admission source, admission service, and discharge disposition. The agreement between electronic and manual data abstraction of the time of ICU admission and discharge were 99% and 89%. The time of hospital admission and discharge were similar for both the electronically and manually abstracted datasets. The specificity of the electronically-generated report was 93% and 94% for invasive and non-invasive ventilation use in the ICU. One false-positive result for each type of ventilation was present. The specificity for ICU and in-hospital mortality was 100%. Sensitivity was 100% for all metrics. CONCLUSION: Our study demonstrates excellent accuracy of electronically-generated key ICU quality metrics. This validates the feasibility of automatic metric generation.     

早期肌钙蛋白I对危重孕产妇重症监护病房住院时间的预测价值

目的评估入重症监护病房（ICU）早期出现肌钙蛋白I（TnI）升高对重症孕产妇ICU住院时间的预测价值。 方法对2014年1月1日至2019年7月1日入住北京大学人民医院ICU的危重孕产妇的临床资料进行回顾性分析。根据入住ICU住院时间是否大于72 h,分为ICU住院时间延长和ICU住院时间非延长2个组。采用多因素Logistic回归方法分析ICU住院时间延长的独立危险因素。采用受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线评价入ICU早期TnI水平及AKI对ICU住院时间延长的预测价值。 结果本研究纳入转入ICU的危重孕产妇119例;其中ICU住院时间延长组47例（39.5%）,非延长组72例（60.5%）。Logistic回归分析发现,早期TnI升高（优势比6.697,95%CI：1.27~35.332,P=0.025）和急性肾损伤（AKI,优势比6.054,95%CI：1.248~29.368,P=0.025）是危重孕产妇ICU住院时间延长的独立危险因素。ROC曲线分析显示,入ICU早期发生TnI升高及AKI对ICU住院时间延长预测的曲线下面积分别为0.741（95%CI 0.65~0.832,P<0.001）和0.729（95%CI 0.634~0.825,P<0.001）;二者联合对ICU住院时间延长预测的曲线下面积为0.806（95%CI 0.723~0.889,P<0.001）。 结论早期出现TnI升高和AKI是预测危重孕产妇ICU住院时间延长的独立危险因素,对ICU住院时间有预测价值。     

The pharmacokinetics of morphine and lidocaine in critically ill patients

Objective: To evaluate the pharmacokinetic parameters of morphine and lidocaine after a single intravenous dose in critically ill patients. Design: Prospective, clinical study. Setting: General intensive care unit (ICU) in a university hospital. Patients: Patients admitted to the ICU with severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome of various etiologies. Interventions: A single intravenous dose of morphine (0.025 mg/kg) and lidocaine (1.5 mg/kg) were given separately 12–36 h after admission, and arterial blood samples for serum drug levels were taken. Measurements and results: Morphine pharmacokinetics were studied in 30 patients. The clearance (Cl) was found to be 5.7 ± 2.3 ml/kg per min, volume of distribution of the central compartment (Vc) 0.16 ± 0.12 l/kg and volume of distribution at steady state (Vss) 1.08 ± 0.69 l/kg. These values are lower then those described previously for healthy volunteers (33.5 ± 9 ml/kg per min, 1.01 ± 0.31 l/kg, and 5.16 ± 1.4 l/kg, respectively), and similar to those described in trauma and burned patients. Lidocaine pharmacokinetics were tested in 24 subjects. The Cl was 6.9 ± 3.8 ml/kg per min, Vc 0.25 ± 0.1 l/kg and Vss 0.78 ± 0.26 l/kg. These values are not different from parameters published previously for healthy volunteers (10 ml/kg per min, 0.53 l/min and 1.32 l/min, respectively). No correlation was found between clinical variables and pharmacokinetic parameters of both drugs (ANOVA). Conclusions: Both morphine and lidocaine have a reduced volume of distribution in critically ill patients. The normal lidocaine clearance indicates preserved hepatic blood flow and suggests that other mechanisms are involved in the reduced morphine clearance. These findings may have application for the treatment of ICU patients. Received: 27 April 1998 Final revision received: 27 August 1998 Accepted: 6 October 1998