落新妇苷通过激活PI3K/AKT信号通路和抑制P38MAPK信号通路减轻H2O2诱导的PC12细胞损伤

目的 研究落新妇苷对H2O2诱导的氧化应激损伤的PC12细胞影响。方法 将PC12细胞分为5组:对照组、H_2O_2组及不同浓度(1μmol/L、10μmol/L、20μmol/L)落新妇苷组。采用CCK8实验检测各组细胞的活力; Annexin V-FITC/PI细胞凋亡实验检测各组细胞凋亡率; Western blot检测PI3K、AKT、Caspase3和P38蛋白及其磷酸化激活蛋白的表达水平。结果 与H_2O_2组相比,落新妇苷组细胞的活力显著提高,细胞凋亡率明显降低,活化的凋亡相关蛋白Cleaved Caspase3表达水平降低,PI3K/AKT途径相关蛋白p-PI3K和p-AKT的表达水平升高,P38 MAPK途径重要蛋白p-P38的表达水平降低。结论 落新妇苷对H_2O_2诱导的氧化应激损伤的PC12细胞有明显保护作用;这种保护作用可能是通过激活PI3K/AKT信号通路及抑制P38MAPK信号通路实现的。     

Caspase-3在H2O2诱导神经细胞凋亡中的作用

目的研究caspase-3在H2O2诱发神经细胞凋亡中的作用,以探讨氧化应激损伤诱导神经细胞凋亡的机制。方法用海马神经细胞原代培养技术,采用1mmol/L H2O2诱导建立细胞氧化损伤模型,并观察细胞形态学变化,采用TUNEL法检测H2O2诱导大鼠海马神经元凋亡率;采用RT-PCR法检测caspase-3 mRNA的表达。结果形态学观察结果显示模型组比海马组细胞损伤程度较严重;与对照组比较,模型组细胞凋亡率及caspase-3 mRNA的表达显著增高（P〈0.01）。结论本结果提示,caspase-3可能参与了氧化应激损伤诱导的神经细胞凋亡过程。     

槲皮苷对过氧化氢诱导PC12细胞损伤的保护作用

目的探讨槲皮苷对H2O2所致的PC12细胞凋亡的保护作用及机制。方法 PC12细胞培养后,MTT检测细胞存活率的方法进行H2O2损伤模型的摸索和槲皮苷药物浓度的筛选,将PC12细胞分为对照组、模型组和不同剂量槲皮苷组。用400μmol H2O2刺激PC12神经元细胞使其发生凋亡复制阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型,MTT法检测PC12细胞存活率、硫辛酰胺脱氢酶催化的INT显色反应检测乳酸脱氢酶(LDH)释放量和DAPI荧光核染色观察细胞凋亡形态学改变,Western blot方法检测Cytc和caspase-3表达的变化。结果 400μmol H2O2诱导PC12细胞损伤明显,与模型组比较,槲皮苷组PC12细胞存活率显著提高(P<0.01),凋亡率显著下降(P<0.01),LDH释放量和凋亡相关蛋白Cytc和caspase-3的表达显著减少(P<0.01)。结论槲皮苷可抑制H2O2诱导的PC12细胞凋亡,其机制可能与抑制细胞凋亡线粒体途径中凋亡相关蛋白Cytc和caspase-3的表达有关。     

丹参川芎嗪注射液对Aβ损伤的PC12细胞保护作用及机制研究

目的 探讨丹参川芎嗪注射液对Aβ损伤的PC12细胞可能的保护作用及机制。方法 将PC12细胞分为5组:空白对照组(未加任何处理药物)、Aβ诱导组(20 μmol/L Aβ处理组)和预处理组(分别加入浓度为5 ml/L、10 ml/L、20 ml/L的丹参川芎嗪注射液孵育24 h后加20 μmol/L Aβ),通过CCK-8法检测细胞增殖活性,流式细胞术(FCM)检测细胞凋亡率,Hoechst 33258染色观察PC12细胞核的改变,荧光分光光度计测定LDH、SOD、GSH及caspase-3活性水平,免疫组织化学方法观察细胞色素C(Cyt-C)蛋白释放水平,Western Blot检测Bcl-2的表达水平。结果 丹参川芎嗪注射液(5、10、20 ml/L)预处理对Aβ诱导的PC12细胞损伤有较好的保护作用,其保护作用随着药物浓度的增加而增强。它能增加Aβ损伤的PC12细胞增殖活力,减少Aβ诱导的PC12细胞凋亡,降低细胞核凝聚现象,抑制Aβ损伤的PC12细胞LDH释放,增强SOD和GSH活性,促进Cyt-C在细胞内表达,降低caspase-3活性,促进Bcl-2的表达。结论 丹参川芎嗪注射液对Aβ诱导的PC12细胞损伤具有与线粒体通路相关的保护作用,其保护作用与它抑制细胞凋亡、抗氧化应激、维持线粒体正常功能、抑制caspase-3的激活、促进抗凋亡因子Bcl-2的表达有关。     

过表达Mfn2基因通过PI3K/AKT通路抑制鱼藤酮诱导的帕金森病细胞模型的细胞凋亡

目的 探讨过表达线粒体融合蛋白2(Mfn2)基因通过PI3K/AKT通路抑制鱼藤酮诱导的帕金森病细胞模型的细胞凋亡。方法 培养SH-SY5Y细胞并分组,对照组用不含药物及质粒的DMEM干预; 鱼藤酮组用含有20 μmol/L鱼藤酮的DMEM干预; 鱼藤酮+空白质粒组用含有20 μmol/L鱼藤酮的DMEM干预并转染空白的pcDNA 3.1质粒; 鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒组用含有20 μmol/L鱼藤酮的DMEM干预并转染表达Mfn2的pcDNA3.1质粒; 鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒+LY组用含有20 μmol/L鱼藤酮、10 μmol/L LY294002的DMEM干预并转染表达Mfn2的pcDNA3.1质粒; 检测细胞活力、凋亡率及线粒体凋亡基因、p-PI3K、p-AKT的表达水平。结果 鱼藤酮组的细胞活力及细胞中p-PI3K、p-AKT的表达水平均低于对照组,凋亡率及细胞中caspase-9、cleaved caspase-3的表达水平均高于对照组; 鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒组的细胞活力及细胞中p-PI3K、p-AKT的表达水平均高于鱼藤酮组,凋亡率及细胞中caspase-9、cleaved caspase-3的表达水平均低于鱼藤酮组; 鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒+LY组的细胞活力及细胞中p-PI3K、p-AKT的表达水平均低于鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒组,凋亡率及细胞中caspase-9、cleaved caspase-3的表达水平均高于鱼藤酮+Mfn2质粒组。结论 过表达Mfn2基因对鱼藤酮诱导的帕金森病细胞模型的细胞凋亡具有抑制作用,且该作用可能与抑制PI3K/AKT通路有关     

姜黄素通过IGF-1/Akt/FoxO3a通路保护鱼藤酮诱导PC12细胞的PD模型

目的探究姜黄素(Cur)对鱼藤酮(Ro)诱导的PC12细胞损伤的保护作用及机制。方法建立鱼藤酮诱导的PC12细胞的帕金森病模型,利用姜黄素进行干预。实验分组为空白对照组,鱼藤酮模型组(终浓度:0.1μmol/L),姜黄素干预组(终浓度:0.5μmol/L、1.0μmol/L、5.0μmol/L、10μmol/L)。MTT比色法检测细胞活力,AO/EB荧光染色法观察细胞的凋亡情况,AnnexinⅤ-FITC/P双染检测细胞凋亡,Western-blot法检测细胞内IGF-1、Akt、FoxO3a的蛋白表达。结果 MTT结果显示:鱼藤酮组较对照组细胞活力明显降低,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01),0.5μmol/L和1.0μmol/L姜黄素干预组可减轻0.1μmol/L鱼藤酮对PC12细胞增殖活力的影响,明显抑制了鱼藤酮对PC12细胞凋亡的诱导作用,与鱼藤酮组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.01)Western-blot结果示:鱼藤酮组较对照组明显降低,差异具有统计学意义(P<0.01),0.5μmol/L和1.0μmol/L姜黄素干预组IGF-1、磷酸化的Akt(p-Akt)、磷酸化的FoxO3a(p-FoxO3a)表达与鱼藤酮组比明显升高,差异均有统计学意义(均P<0.01)。以上结果均显示5.0μmol/L和10μmol/L姜黄素干预组与鱼藤酮组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);结论适宜浓度的姜黄素对鱼藤酮诱导PC12细胞损伤的PD模型具有保护作用,其保护作用呈浓度依赖性,其保护作用的机制可能与激活IGF-1/Akt/FoxO3a通路有关。     

丁基苯酞对大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞氧化应激损伤保护机制的研究

目的 研究丁基苯酞(DL-3-n-butylphthalide,NBP)对双氧水(hydrogen peroxide,H2O2)诱导的大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞(rat bone marrow stem cells,rBMSCs)氧化应激损伤的保护机制.方法 采用H2O2制作rBMSCs氧化应激损伤模型.实验分为对照组、H2O2损伤组、不同浓度NBP预处理组(0.1μmol组、1μmol组、10μmol组、100μmol组).不予H2O2及NBP处理的细胞为对照组;H2O2损伤组以终浓度为600μmol的H2O2处理4h制作氧化应激损伤模型;NBP处理组以不同浓度NBP预处理rBMSCs 24h后,再予以终浓度为600μmol的H2O2处理4h.采用MTT法检测各实验组的细胞活力;油镜观察各组细胞形态;流式细胞仪检测各实验组的细胞凋亡率;Westem bolt法检测各实验组Caspase-3的表达情况.结果 NBP可明显降低H2O2对rBMSCs的损伤作用、抑制rBMSCs的凋亡、下调Caspase-2的表达.结论 NBP对H2O2诱导的rBMSCs氧化应激损伤具有保护作用,其机制可能与NBP的抗凋亡作用有关.     

刺五加多糖对H2O2诱导的大鼠海马神经元凋亡的保护作用

目的研究刺五加多糖（ASPS）对H2O2诱导的海马神经元凋亡的影响及其机制。方法采用H2O2诱导大鼠海马神经元凋亡。采用末端脱氧核苷酸转移酶介导的dUTP原位切口末端标记法检测细胞凋亡率、免疫组化法检测caspase-3蛋白的表达、逆转录PCR法检测caspase-3 mRNA的表达。结果H2O2作用后,海马神经元凋亡率、caspase-3蛋白和mRNA表达水平均显著增高（P〈0.05）;给予ASPS干预后,均显著下降（P〈0.05）;而且,随ASPS剂量增加,作用效果显著增强（P〈0.05）。结论ASPS具有抑制氧化应激损伤诱导神经细胞凋亡作用,其机制与下调caspase-3 mRNA的表达有关。     

姜黄素抑制BV2细胞RAGE/NF-κB通路发挥对多巴胺能神经细胞的保护作用

目的探讨小胶质细胞在多巴胺能神经细胞损伤中所起的作用以及姜黄素通过抑制小胶质细胞的炎症反应发挥保护作用。方法选用鼠小胶质细胞系BV2细胞株和神经元SH-SY5Y细胞作为研究对象,利用鱼藤酮(Rotenone,RO)建立细胞损伤模型,10 nmol/L RO处理BV2细胞6 h后再经不同浓度(1、5、10μmol/L)姜黄素(Curcumin,Cur)处理4 h,收集BV2细胞上清液作为条件培养基处理SH-SY5Y细胞,并设置空白对照组。采用四甲基偶氮唑盐法(MTT法)检测两种细胞活力,Western blot检测细胞BV2细胞内RAGE/NF-κB表达,ELISA法测定BV2细胞培养上清液细胞因子含量。结果 1~10μmol/L的Cur并未影响BV2细胞的增殖活力;与空白对照组相比,RO组RAGE/NF-κB的蛋白表达明显升高(P0.01),与RO组相比,Cur处理组RAGE/NF-κB的蛋白表达量显著减少(P0.05);与空白对照组相比,RO组炎症因子的分泌量明显升高(P0.01),与RO组相比,Cur处理组随着浓度的升高炎症因子的分泌量逐渐减少(P0.05);受条件培养基处理的SH-SY5Y细胞,与对照组相比,RO组细胞活力明显减弱(P0.01),但Cur处理组的细胞活力较RO组升高,差异具有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 Cur通过抑制小胶质细胞反应,从而保护多巴胺能神经细胞。     

雷沙吉兰(Rasagiline)对Aβ25-35诱导PC12细胞凋亡的防护作用

目的探讨雷沙吉兰(Rasagiline)对β-淀粉样蛋白(Aβ)诱导PC12细胞损伤阿尔茨海默病(AD)模型的保护作用及其机制。方法不同浓度的Aβ25-35(1μmol/L,10μmol/L,20μmol/L)作用于PC12细胞48h,MTT法检测细胞存活率,选用使细胞存活率降低到64%的Aβ浓度20μmol/L。用不同浓度的雷沙吉兰(0.1μmol/L,1μmol/L,10μmol/L)预孵育PC12细胞1h,再加入20μmol/L的Aβ共孵育48h,再测MTT活性,并用荧光染料丫啶橙和溴化乙啶染色,在荧光显微镜下计数凋亡细胞检测凋亡细胞百分率。结果Aβ在20μmol/L时使PC12细胞存活率降低至64%,与对照组差异显著,1μmol/L的雷沙吉兰可显著提高细胞存活率至85%。对照组细胞凋亡率为2%,20μmol/L Aβ作用48h后,PC12细胞凋亡率达13%,1μmol/L的雷沙吉兰使20μmol/L Aβ诱导的PC12细胞凋亡率下降到5%。结论雷沙吉兰对Aβ引起的PC12细胞损伤具有明显的保护作用,其机制可能与抑制Aβ诱导的凋亡有关。     

N (L-Phenylisopropyl)adenosine (L-PIA) increases slow-wave sleep (S2) and decreases wakefulness in rats

Rats implanted with electrodes for polygraphic recording were administered with L-PIA (0.115 mg/kg, i.p.), caffeine (15 mg/kg, i.p.) or L-PIA (0.115 mg/kg, i.p.) + caffeine (15 mg/kg, i.p.) and recorded for 6 h. The results show that administration of L-PIA increased S₂ by 54 min suggesting that stimulation of adenosine receptors promotes deep sleep. Administration of L-PIA failed to produce the same effect in the presence of caffeine, a finding consistent with the hypothesis that the CNS stimulant effect of caffeine and other methylxanthines is due to their ability to antagonize depressant effects of endogenous adenosine.     

锌离子对大鼠海马突触体Ca^2＋—Mg^2＋ATP酶活性及蛋白合成的影响

行为实验己经证明，锌过多或缺锌均可影响脑功能。锌作为体内重要的微量元素，影响多种酶的活性及蛋白质和核酸的台成。本实验通过体外分离大鼠脑海马突触体，观察不同浓度锌离子对Ca2 －Mg2 ATP酶的活性和3H－Leu掺入突触蛋白合成的影响．结果表明：1．锌离子浓度在25μmol／L时增加该酶的活性（＜0．01），并促进3H－Leur掺入蛋白质的合成（＜0．05）。2．锌离子在50,100，200μmol／L的较高浓度时对Co2 －M2 ATP酶的活性有显著的抑制作用（分别为：P＜0.05．P＜0．01，P＜0.01），仅200μmol／L对3H—Leu掺入突触蛋白合成有抑制作用。本研究提示：适量的锌对突触体功能的维持是必要的，但剂量过高则起相反作用。     

Mice overexpressing Bcl-2 in their neurons are resistant to myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG)-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE)

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by destruction of myelin. Recent studies have indicated that axonal damage is involved in the pathogenesis of the progressive disability of this disease. To study the role of axonal damage in the pathogenesis of MS-like disease induced by myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG), we compared experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in wild-type (WT) and transgenic mice expressing the human bcl-2 gene exclusively in neurons under the control of the neuron-specific enolase (NSE) promoter. Our study shows that, following EAE induction with pMOG 35-55, the WT mice developed significant clinical manifestations with complete hind-limb paralysis. In contrast, most of the NSE-bcl-2 mice (16/27) were completely resistant, whereas the others showed only mild clinical signs. Histological examination of CNS tissue sections showed multifocal areas of perivascular lymphohistiocytic inflammation with loss of myelin and axons in the WT mice, whereas only focal inflammation and minimal axonal damage were demonstrated in NSE-bcl-2 mice. No difference could be detected in the immune potency as indicated by delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and T-cell proliferative responses to MOG. We also demonstrated that purified synaptosomes from the NSE-bcl-2 mice produce significantly lower level of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following exposure to H₂0₂ and nitric oxide (NO) than WT mice. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the expression of the antiapoptotic gene, bcl-2, reduces axonal damage and attenuates the severity of MOG-induced EAE. Our results emphasize the importance of developing neuroprotective therapies, in addition to immune-specific approaches, for treatment of MS. D.O. and J.F.K. contributed equally.     

Oxidative stress in tardive dyskinesia: Genetic association study and meta-analysis of NADPH quinine oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) and Superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2, MnSOD) genes

Introduction

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a potentially irreversible side effect of antipsychotic medication treatment that occurs in approximately 25% of chronically treated schizophrenia patients. Oxidative stress has been one of the proposed mechanisms influencing TD risk. Pae et al. (2004) originally reported a significant association between TD and the NADPH quinine oxidoreductase 1 (NQO1) gene Pro187Ser (C609T, rs1800566) polymorphism in Korean schizophrenia patients; however, subsequent studies have not consistently replicated these findings. Similarly, Hori et al. (2000) reported an association between TD and the Manganese superoxide dismutase SOD2 (MnSOD) gene Ala9Val (rs4880) polymorphism in a Japanese sample, but most research groups failed to replicate their positive findings.

Aims

We investigated the role of the NQO1 polymorphism Pro187Ser and SOD2 (Ala9Val) in a group of well-characterized schizophrenia patients (N = 223) assessed for TD. We also performed a meta-analysis of all the previously published TD studies, including data from our sample, on these polymorphisms, Pro187Ser (N = 5 studies) and Ala9Val (N = 9 studies).

Results

We did not observe a significant association of the Pro187Ser or Ala9Val polymorphism with TD occurrence or AIMS scores in our Caucasian and African American samples when analyzed independently. Meta-analysis did not reveal a significant association of the Pro187Ser/Ala9Val alleles or genotypes with TD occurrence.

Conclusions

Neither the NQO1 Pro187Ser nor the SOD2 Ala9Val appear to play a major role in TD risk, although additional polymorphisms should be tested before the role of NQO1 and SOD2 in TD can be completely excluded.     

In vitro characterization of Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2), Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2) and [Phe1Psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly2] nociceptin(1-13)NH(2) at rat native and recombinant ORL(1) receptors

The pharmacology of ORL(1) compounds, [Phe1Psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly2]nociceptin(1-13)NH(2) (F/GNC13), Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2) and Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2) was evaluated at rat ORL(1) receptors in frontal cortex (CTX), transfected chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, vas deferens (VD) and anococcygeus (AC). Ranked affinities for the inhibition of [3H]nociceptin binding to CTX and CHO's were: Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2) identical withAc-RYYRIK-NH(2) identical withnociceptin>F/GNC13>Dynorphin A>naloxone.The full agonist, nociceptin stimulated [35S]GTPgammaS binding in CTX (E(max)=174%) and CHO's (E(max)=311%); all other ORL(1) peptides acted as partial agonists with the following rank order for E(max) values: Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2) (96% (CTX), 202% (CHO))>F/GNC13 (44% (CTX), 136% (CHO)) identical withAc-RYYRIK-NH(2) (44% (CTX), 115% (CHO)). Schild analysis generated pA(2) values in CTX of 8.59 (F/GNC13) and 9.13 (Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2)). cAMP production in CHO's was inhibited by 77% (nociceptin), 58% (Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2)), 55% (F/GNC13) and 49% (Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2)). Nociceptin inhibited electrically evoked contractions in isolated tissues by 95% (VD) and 98% (AC); partial inhibition was observed with Ac-RYYRWK-NH(2) (72% (VD), 66% (AC)) and Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2) (54% (VD); 37%(AC)).Ineffective in the VD, F/GNC13 caused a small inhibition in the AC that was reversed at higher concentrations. Schild analysis gave pA(2) affinities of 7.32(VD) and 7.34(AC) for F/GNC13 and 8.69(AC) for Ac-RYYRIK-NH(2).     

Abnormal neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of adult mice lacking 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D3 (1,25-(OH)2 D3)

In this study, we employed 1α-hydroxylase knockout (1α-(OH)ase(-/-) ) mice to investigate the influence of 1,25-dihydroxy vitamin D(3) (1,25-(OH)(2) D(3) ) deficiency on the adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus (DG). The numbers of both 24-hr-old BrdU(+) cells and proliferating cell nuclear antigen positive cells in 8-week-old 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) mice increased approximately twofold compared with wild-type littermates. In contrast, the numbers of 7- and 28-day-old BrdU(+) cells in 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) mice decreased by 50% compared with wild-type mice, while the proportion of BrdU(+) /NeuN(+) cells in BrdU(+) population showed no difference between 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) and wild-type mice. Apoptotic cells in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of DG markedly increased in 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) mice. Replenishment of 1,25-(OH)(2) D(3) , but not correction of serum calcium and phosphorus levels, completely prevented changes in the neurogenesis in 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) mice. The absence of 1,25-(OH)(2) D(3) led to an increase in the expression of L-type voltage-gated calcium channel (L-VGCC) and a decrease in the nerve growth factor (NGF) mRNA level. Treatment with the L-VGCC inhibitor nifedipine blocked the increased cell proliferations by 1,25-(OH)(2) D(3) deficiency. Administration of NGF significantly attenuated the loss of newborn neurons in 1α-(OH)ase(-/-) mice.     

Phe(1)Psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly(2)]NC(1-13)NH(2) does not antagonize orphaninFQ/nociceptin-induced prolactin release

The specificity of the orphaninFQ (OFQ)/nociceptin (N)-induced prolactin increase was determined in male and female rats by pretreating animals with different doses of [Phe(1)Psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly(2)]NC(1-13)NH(2), a compound originally reported to be a specific OFQ/N antagonist. In addition, the effect of naloxone pretreatment on OFQ/N-induced prolactin release was examined to determine if OFQ/N's effects were mediated by opiate receptors. Furthermore, dose response studies using [Phe(1)Psi(CH(2)-NH)Gly(2)]NC(1-13)NH(2) only were performed to determine potential agonist activity of this drug. Finally, growth hormone (GH) levels were determined as an index of specificity of the prolactin response. Our results confirm previous findings that OFQ/N potently stimulates prolactin release and that a gender difference exists in the magnitude of the response, with females showing a much greater response than male rats. The endocrine response is specific because OFQ/N potently stimulated prolactin, but not GH secretion. The prolactin response is not mediated by actions at opiate receptors because naloxone did not inhibit OFQ/N's effects on prolactin release. However, [Phe(1)Psi(CH(2)-NH) Gly2]NC(1-13) NH(2) did not antagonize OFQ/N's effects on prolactin release. Indeed, this drug acted as a potent agonist. Demonstrating pharmacological specificity of OFQ/N's effects on prolactin release awaits the development of more selective, specific antagonists.     

Spinocerebellar ataxia 2 (SCA2)

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 2 (SCA2) is an autosomal dominantly inherited, neurodegenerative disease. It can manifest either with a cerebellar syndrome or as Parkinson’s syndrome, while later stages involve mainly brainstem, spinal cord and thalamus. This particular atrophy pattern resembles sporadic multi-system-atrophy (MSA) and results in some clinical features indicative of SCA2, such as early saccade slowing, early hyporeflexia, severe tremor of postural or action type, and early myoclonus. For treatment, levodopa is temporarily useful for rigidity/bradykinesia and for tremor, magnesium for muscle cramps, but neuroprotective therapy will depend on the elucidation of pathogenesis. The disease cause lies in the polyglutamine domain of the protein ataxin-2, which can expand in families over successive generations resulting in earlier onset age and faster progression. Genetic testing in SCA2 and other polyglutamine disorders like the well-studied Huntington’s disease is now readily available for family planning. Although these disorders differ clinically and in the affected neuron populations, it is not understood how the different polyglutamine proteins mediate such tissue specificity. The neuronal intranuclear inclusion bodies described in other polyglutamine disorders are not frequent in SCA2. For the quite ubiquitously expressed ataxin-2, a subcellular localization at the Golgi, the endoplasmic reticulum and the plasma membrane, in interaction with proteins of mRNA translation and of endocytosis have been observed. As a first victim of SCA2 degeneration, cerebellar Purkinje neurons may be preferentially susceptible to alterations of these subcellular pathways, and therefore our review aims to portray the particular profile of the SCA2 disease process and correlate it to the specific features of ataxin-2.     

Dopamine D2 (DAD2) and dopamine D3 (DAD3) receptor gene polymorphisms and treatment outcome in alcohol dependence

Summary. The dopaminergic system is critically involved in reward mechanisms mediating the reinforcing effects of alcohol. The intention of this study was to investigate the genotypic frequencies of the −141C Ins/Del polymorphism of the DAD2 receptor gene as well as the Bal I polymorphism of the DAD3 receptor and their potential association with treatment outcome in alcoholism. Therefore, individuals suffering from primary alcohol dependence were clinically and genetically characterized and followed prospectively over a period of one year after inpatient treatment. No association was found between DAD2 or DAD3 receptor gene variants and treatment outcome as reflected by abstinence/relapse after one year. Taking into account potential stratification effects, such as family history, gender, age of onset, or severity of the disease an association with DAD2 or DAD3 gene variants could neither be found. In conclusion, we found no evidence that the DAD2 or DAD3 gene variants investigated have a major influence on treatment outcome in primary alcohol dependence. Received June 2002; accepted February 3, 2003 Published online April 22, 2003 RID="*" ID="*"  This paper is dedicated to Prof. Peter Riederer who celebrated his 60^th birthday in March 2002 Authors' address: PD Dr. G. A. Wiesbeck, Addiction Research Group, Psychiatric Clinic, University of Würzburg, Füchsleinstrasse 15, D-97080 Würzburg, Germany, e-mail: wiesbeck_g@klinik.uni-wuerzburg.de