大鼠实验性脑出血后脑水肿与MMP-9表达的关系及依达拉奉干预效应的研究

目的 探讨脑出血后脑水肿和MMP-9表达的动态变化及依达拉奉的干预效应.方法 采用立体定向技术制作大鼠脑出血模型,干湿重法测量脑组织含水量和免疫组化法测定脑组织MMP-9的表达.结果 与假手术组比较,脑出血12h时脑组织含水量明显增加(P＜0.05), 72h时达到高峰,随后逐渐下降, 7d时仍高于假手术组(P＜0.05).出血组大鼠脑含水量与血肿周围MMP-9阳性细胞数呈正相关(r=0.846, P=0.034),且差异有统计学意义.(3)治疗组脑含水量和MMP-9阳性细胞数与假手术组比较差异有统计学意义,与出血组比较差异亦有统计学意义(P＜0.05).结论 MMP-9参与了脑出血后脑水肿的形成,依达拉奉对脑水肿有抑制作用.     

粒细胞集落刺激因子对脑出血大鼠星型胶质细胞可塑性的影响

目的通过研究粒细胞集落刺激因子(G-CSF)对大鼠脑出血(ICH)后星型胶质细胞可塑性的影响,探讨G-CSF在ICH中的神经保护作用。方法 SD大鼠随机分为假手术组、模型组、治疗组。断尾取自体血法制备大鼠ICH模型,治疗组于造模1h后腹腔注射重组粒细胞集落刺激因子(rhG-CSF)60μg/kg。3组大鼠于术后6h、24h、48h、72h、7d、10d进行神经功能障碍评分,免疫组化检测血肿周围GFAP的动态变化。结果治疗组各时间点神经功能评分明显高于模型组(P<0.05)。假手术组未见GFAP阳性细胞表达;模型组6h出现少量GFAP阳性细胞表达,48h增多,72h大量表达,7d达高峰,10d表达减弱;治疗组GFAP阳性细胞表达6h与模型组相似,24h、48h、72h、7d、10d较模型组明显减少(P<0.05)。结论 ICH后G-CSF可抑制星形胶质细胞过度活化,改善ICH大鼠神经功能。     

大鼠脑出血后基质金属蛋白酶的动态表达及七叶皂苷钠对其表达的影响

目的 观察大鼠脑出血(ICH)后基质金属蛋白酶-2( MMP-2)、MMP-9蛋白动态表达及其与血肿周围脑组织含水量的关系,以及观察七叶皂苷钠对MMP-2、MMP-9表达的影响.方法 Wistar大鼠250只随机分为4组:正常对照组10只、假手术组、ICH组和七叶皂苷钠治疗组各80只,于制模后6 h、12 h、24 h、48 h、72 h、120 h、7 d、15 d 8个时间点,测定各组血肿周围脑组织含水量、MMP-2和MMP-9的蛋白表达.结果 治疗组神经功能缺损较ICH组明显改善,尤以6 h～7 d时明显(P<0.01～0.05);6～120 h各治疗组血肿周围脑组织含水量较ICH组明显减少(P<0.01～0.05);ICH后MMP-2蛋白表达在6 h达到高峰,12 h时下降,与正常对照组相比具有统计学意义 (均P<0.01),治疗组MMP-2蛋白表达在各时间点较ICH组明显减少(均P<0.01);ICH后MMP-9蛋白表达在6 h开始上升,24～48 h达高峰,72 h时下降,与正常对照组相比,具有统计学意义(均P<0.01),其表达水平与血肿周围脑组织含水量呈正相关 (r=0.949, P<0.05);治疗组MMP-9蛋白表达在各时间点较ICH组明显减少(均P<0.01).结论 大鼠ICH后MMP-2、MMP-9蛋白的表达是ICH后早、中期脑水肿形成主要因素,七叶皂苷钠能降低MMP-2、MMP-9蛋白表达和脑组织含水量,对ICH具有保护作用.     

脑出血大鼠血肿周围白介素-10的表达及其与脑水肿的相关性

目的 探讨脑出血(ICH)大鼠血肿周围白介素-10(IL-10)的表达及其与脑水肿的相关性.方法 130只SD大鼠随机分为正常对照组、假手术组和ICH组;应用肝素化Ⅶ型胶原酶建立大鼠ICH模型;制模后12 h、24 h、48 h、72 h、7 d及14 d应用Bederson量表评定神经功能缺损程度,干/湿重法测定脑组织含水量,免疫组化方法检测脑组织血肿周围IL-10的表达.结果 (1)ICH组大鼠神经功能缺损评分与脑组织含水量均在ICH 12 h升高,48 h达高峰,7 d后恢复正常.(2)ICH组脑组织IL-10表达ICH 12 h明显升高,14 d达高峰,各时间点间均显著高于正常对照组和假手术组(P＜0.05～0.01).(3)ICH组神经功能缺损评分与脑组织含水量呈正相关(r=0.761,P＜0.01),脑组织IL-10表达与脑组织含水量、神经功能缺损评分呈负相关(r=-0.65,-0.753,均P＜0.01).结论 ICH大鼠血肿周围脑组织IL-10表达逐渐升高,可能参与了ICH后减轻脑水肿、促进神经功能恢复的脑保护作用.     

中性粒细胞明胶酶相关载脂蛋白在大鼠脑出血后继发性脑损伤中的作用研究

目的探讨中性粒细胞明胶酶相关载脂蛋白(NGAL)在脑出血(ICH)后继发性脑损伤中的作用。方法采用Ⅶ胶原酶制作ICH模型,将90只雄性SD大鼠随机分为3组:正常对照组(10只)、假手术组(40只)和ICH模型组(40只)。分别在ICH后6 h、24 h、72 h和7 d四个时间点对大鼠进行神经功能缺损评分;用免疫组化及RT-q PCR来观察不同时间点脑组织NGAL及MMP-9表达情况。结果免疫组化及RT-q PCR结果显示ICH后模型组各时间点均可见大量NGAL、MMP-9阳性细胞及NGAL mRNA表达,且明显高于正常组及假手术组(P0.05)。ICH模型组NGAL与MMP-9蛋白表达呈正相关(P0.01)。ICH模型组NGAL、MMP-9蛋白表达均与大鼠神经功能缺损评分呈正相关(P0.05)。结论 ICH后NGAL表达明显增加,提示NGAL可能参与了脑出血后继发性脑损伤,并可能通过调节MMP-9的活性从而发挥作用,但NGAL是否为MMP-9的上游调控因子尚有待进一步研究。     

实验性脑出血后脑组织核因子-κB表达和含水量的变化及其相关性

目的 研究实验性脑出血(ICH)后血肿周围脑组织核因子-κB(NF-κB)表达和脑组织含水量的改变及其相关性.方法 采用自体不凝血注人大鼠尾状核制备ICH模型;用免疫组化法检测血肿周围脑组织NF-κB表达;用干湿重法测脑组织含水量.结果 与对照组相比,ICH 6h组血肿周围脑组织NF-κB表达开始明显增加,ICH 48h组达高峰,并持续到ICH 1周(P＜0.01～0.05);脑组织含水量ICH 12h组开始增多,24h组显著增高,72h组达高峰;NF-κB表达和脑组织含水量ICH 24h～1周组与假手术组之间差异有统计学意义(均P＜0.01);ICH后NF-κB阳性细胞数与脑组织含水量呈正相关(r=0.644,P＜0.01),NF-κB表达从开始到高峰均早于脑组织含水量的变化.结论 ICH后脑组织NF-κB表达增加,NF-κB可能通过炎性机制参与了ICH后继发脑水肿的形成.     

脑出血大鼠血肿周围脑组织含水量与基质金属蛋白酶-9、组织基质金属蛋白酶抑制剂-1及谷氨酸表达水平的关系

目的 探讨脑出血大鼠血肿周围脑组织含水量与基质金属蛋白酶-9(MMP-9)、组织基质金属蛋白酶抑制剂-1(TIMP-1)及谷氨酸表达水平的关系.方法 雄性Wistar大鼠48只,随机分为正常对照组(n=8)、假手术组(n=8)、脑出血组(n=32),脑出血组又分为脑出血后12h、24h、72 h、7d4个亚组,每亚组8只大鼠.采用自体血尾状核注入法制备脑出血模型.采用干湿重法测定脑含水量,免疫组化法检测血肿周围脑组织MMP-9、TIMP-1及谷氨酸的表达.结果 脑出血组各时间点亚组大鼠血肿周围脑组织含水量与MMP-9、TIMP-1及谷氨酸表达水平均显著高于正常对照组和假手术组(均P＜0.01).脑出血组中,72 h亚组大鼠脑组织含水量及MMP-9、TIMP-1表达水平最高(P ＜0.01);24 h亚组大鼠脑组织谷氨酸表达水平最高(P＜0.01).多重线性回归分析结果显示,脑组织含水量(Y)与脑组织MMP-9(X1)及谷氨酸(X3)表达水平呈直线关系,多元回归方程为Y=68.894+0.281X1-0.052X3.结论 脑出血后血肿周围组织含水量及MMP-9、TIMP-1、谷氨酸的表达水平明显增高,MMP-9、谷氨酸在脑出血后血肿周围组织水肿的发生发展中具有重要作用.     

缺氧预处理对颅脑损伤大鼠脑组织MMP-9表达及含水量的影响

目的观察缺氧预处理对颅脑损伤(TBI)大鼠脑组织基质金属蛋白酶-9(MMP-9)的表达和含水量变化。方法 SD雄性大鼠108只,随机分为对照组(n=6)、缺氧预处理组(HPC组,n=6)、TBI组(n=48)、缺氧预处理+外损组(HPCT组,n=48)。采用干湿重法测定脑组织含水量,RT-q PCR、Western blotting分别测定MMP-9 m RNA及蛋白表达水平。结果 TBI组和HPCT组MMP-9 m RNA在伤后3h、6h、12h、1d、3d明显升高(P0.05),MMP-9蛋白表达和脑组织含水量均在伤后3h、6h、12h、1d、3d、7d明显增加(P0.05)。HPCT组中MMP-9 m RNA在伤后3h、6h、12 h、1d、3d,MMP-9蛋白和脑组织含水量在伤后6h、12h、1d、3d、7 d明显低于TBI组(P0.05)。结论缺氧预处理能抑制颅脑损伤脑组织MMP-9表达从而减轻脑水肿,可能是缺氧预处理对颅脑损伤大鼠发挥脑保护作用的机制之一。     

生物波调控因子对实验性脑梗死大鼠脑组织NF-κB表达的影响

目的:探讨生物波调控因子(BRF)对实验性脑梗死大鼠脑组织NF-κB表达的影响。方法:成年健康雄性SD大鼠90只随机假手术组、生理盐水组、BRF治疗组。制备大脑中动脉梗死(MCAO)模型,术后1h以1ml/100g的剂量分别腹腔注射1.25%BRF溶液和生理盐水,此后1次/d。进行行为学评分、干湿重法测定脑组织含水量、HE染色观察组织病理学改变、免疫组织化学方法测定脑组织NF-κB的表达。结果:(1)MCAO模型大鼠术后各时间点BRF治疗组的行为学评分较生理盐水组降低。(2)与假手术组比较,BRF治疗组和生理盐水组缺血脑组织含水量于24h开始明显升高,48h达高峰,持续至72h,7d明显下降。除6h外在各时间点均有显著性差异。BRF治疗组脑组织水肿程度减轻,48h脑含水量明显低于生理盐水组。(3)缺血区炎细胞浸润和NF-κB阳性细胞表达于梗死后6h开始增多,48h达高峰,持续至7d。假手术组未见明显炎细胞浸润,可见少量散在的NF-κB阳性细胞。BRF治疗组病理损伤减轻,术后48h、72h脑组织NF-κB阳性细胞表达明显低于生理盐水组。结论:生物波调控因子可以减轻梗死后脑水肿,降低脑组织NF-κB的表达,对大鼠脑组织的缺血损伤产生保护作用。     

依达拉奉对脑出血大鼠脑组织含水量、肿瘤坏死因子-α含量、血清基质金属蛋白酶-9水平和超氧化物歧化酶活性的影响

目的 探讨依达拉奉对脑出血大鼠脑组织含水量、肿瘤坏死因子-α(TNF-α)含量、血清基质金属蛋白酶-9 (MMP-9)水平和超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)活性的影响.方法 36只SD大鼠随机分为假手术组、脑出血模型组和依达拉奉治疗组,每组12只大鼠.采用自体血注入法制作大鼠脑出血模型.依达拉奉治疗组术后予以依达拉奉注射液3 mg/kg腹腔注射治疗,每12 h注射1次,直至处死前12 h.术后72 h时,采用于湿重法检测各组脑组织含水量,双抗体夹心酶联免疫吸附(ELISA)法检测脑组织TNF-α含量及血清MMP-9水平,黄嘌呤氧化酶法检测血清SOD活性.结果 与脑出血模型组比较,依达拉奉治疗组及假手术组大鼠脑组织含水量及TNF-α含量明显减少,血清MMP-9水平明显降低,血清SOD活性明显增高(P ＜0.05～0.01).与假手术组比较,依达拉奉治疗组脑组织含水量差异具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).脑出血模型组大鼠脑组织含水量与血清MMP-9水平呈正相关(r=0.956,P=0.003);与血清SOD活性呈负相关(r=-0.945,P=0.004).结论 依达拉奉能降低脑出血大鼠的脑组织含水量、TNF-α含量和血清MMP-9水平,以及提高SOD的活性;其可能通过这些机制对脑出血大鼠的脑组织起保护作用.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.