Optic nerve transection in monkeys may result in secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells

PURPOSE: Interest in neuroprotection for optic neuropathies is, in part, based on the assumption that retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) die, not only as a result of direct (primary) injury, but also indirectly as a result of negative effects from neighboring dying RGCs (secondary degeneration). This experiment was designed to test whether secondary RGC degeneration occurs after orbital optic nerve injury in monkeys. METHODS: The superior one third of the orbital optic nerve on one side was transected in eight cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Twelve weeks after the partial transection, the number of RGC bodies in the superior and inferior halves of the retina of the experimental and control eyes and the number and diameter of axons in the optic nerve were compared by detailed histomorphometry. Vitreous was obtained for amino acid analysis. A sham operation was performed in three additional monkeys. RESULTS: Transection caused loss of 55% +/- 13% of RGC bodies in the superior retina of experimental compared with fellow control eyes (mean +/- SD, t-test, P < 0.00,001, n = 7). Inferior RGCs, not directly injured by transection, decreased by 22% +/- 10% (P = 0.002). The loss of superior optic nerve axons was 83% +/- 12% (mean +/- SD, t-test, P = 0.0008, n = 5) whereas, the inferior loss was 34% +/- 20% (P = 0.02, n = 5). Intravitreal levels of glutamate and other amino acids in eyes with transected nerves were not different from levels in control eyes 12 weeks after injury. Fundus examination, fluorescein angiography, and histologic evaluation confirmed that there was no vascular compromise to retinal tissues by the transection procedure. CONCLUSIONS: This experiment suggests that primary RGC death due to optic nerve injury is associated with secondary death of surrounding RGCs that are not directly injured.     

The effect of experimental glaucoma and optic nerve transection on amacrine cells in the rat retina

PURPOSE: To detect alterations in amacrine cells associated with retinal ganglion cell (RGC) depletion caused by experimental optic nerve transection and glaucoma. METHODS: Intraocular pressure (IOP) was elevated unilaterally in 18 rats by translimbal trabecular laser treatment, and eyes were studied at 1 (n = 6), 2 (n = 5), and 3 (n = 7) months. Complete optic nerve transection was performed unilaterally in nine rats with survival for 1 (n = 4) and 3 (n = 5) months. Serial cryosections (five per eye) were immunohistochemically labeled with rabbit anti-gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and anti-glycine antibodies. Cells in the ganglion cell and inner nuclear layers that labeled for GABA or glycine were counted in a masked fashion under bright-field microscopy. Additional labeling with other RGC and amacrine antigens was also performed. RGC loss was quantified by axon counts. RESULTS: Amacrine cells identified by GABA and glycine labeling were not significantly affected by experimental glaucoma, with a mean decrease of 15% compared with bilaterally untreated control cells (557 +/- 186 neurons/mm [glaucoma] versus 653.9 +/- 114.4 neurons/mm [control] of retina; P = 0.15, t-test). There was no significant trend for amacrine cell counts to be lower in eyes with fewer RGCs (r = -0.39, P = 0.11). By contrast, there was highly significant loss of GABA and glycine staining 3 months after nerve transection, both in the treated and the fellow eyes (P < 0.0001, t-test). However, there was a substantial number of remaining amacrine cells in transected retinas, as indicated by labeling for calretinin and calbindin. CONCLUSIONS: Experimental glaucoma causes minimal change in amacrine cells and their expression of neurotransmitters. After nerve transection, neurotransmitter presence declines, but many amacrine cell bodies remain. Differences among optic nerve injury models, as well as effects on "untreated" fellow eyes, should be recognized.     

Effect of glatiramer acetate on primary and secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells in the rat

PURPOSE: After crush injury to the optic nerve, elevated intraocular pressure, and glutamate toxicity, the immune modulator glatiramer acetate (GA, Cop-1; Copaxone; Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, Pitach Tikva, Israel) has been shown to reduce the delayed cell death of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). This study was undertaken to confirm the protective effect of GA on secondary degeneration of RGCs in the rat, by using a spatial, rather than temporal, model. METHODS: A total of 131 Wistar rats divided into 10 groups underwent bilateral stereotactic injection of fluorescent tracer (Fluorogold; Fluorochrome, Denver, CO) into the superior colliculus to label RGCs. They received a concurrent subcutaneously injection of (1) GA mixed with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), (2) CFA alone, or (3) saline. One week later, the superior one third of the left optic nerve was transected in animals in the six partial transection groups. Optic nerves in four additional groups underwent full transection. Rats were killed and retinas harvested from both eyes 1 or 4 weeks after partial transection and 1 or 2 weeks after full transection. RGC densities were calculated from retinal wholemounts, and differences between right (control) and left (transected) eyes were compared across treatment groups. RESULTS: Among the partial transection groups, differences in the mean percentage of RGC loss in the inferior retinas were not significant at 1 or 4 weeks (ANOVA; P = 0.20, P = 0.12, respectively). After full transection, there was significantly more RGC loss in the GA group than in the CFA group when comparing whole retinas at 1 week, but not at 2 weeks (two-tailed t-test; P = 0.04, P = 0.36, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: There is no evidence that GA has a neuroprotective effect after optic nerve transection, either for primarily injured or secondarily involved RGC.     

Optic Nerve Engraftment of Neural Stem Cells

PurposeTo evaluate the integrative potential of neural stem cells (NSCs) with the visual system and characterize effects on the survival and axonal regeneration of axotomized retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).MethodsFor in vitro studies, primary, postnatal rat RGCs were directly cocultured with human NSCs or cultured in NSC-conditioned media before their survival and neurite outgrowth were assessed. For in vivo studies, human NSCs were transplanted into the transected rat optic nerve, and immunohistology of the retina and optic nerve was performed to evaluate RGC survival, RGC axon regeneration, and NSC integration with the injured visual system.ResultsIncreased neurite outgrowth was observed in RGCs directly cocultured with NSCs. NSC-conditioned media demonstrated a dose-dependent effect on RGC survival and neurite outgrowth in culture. NSCs grafted into the lesioned optic nerve modestly improved RGC survival following an optic nerve transection (593 ± 164 RGCs/mm² vs. 199 ± 58 RGCs/mm²; P < 0.01). Additionally, RGC axonal regeneration following an optic nerve transection was modestly enhanced by NSCs transplanted at the lesion site (61.6 ± 8.5 axons vs. 40.3 ± 9.1 axons, P < 0.05). Transplanted NSCs also differentiated into neurons, received synaptic inputs from regenerating RGC axons, and extended axons along the transected optic nerve to incorporate with the visual system.ConclusionsHuman NSCs promote the modest survival and axonal regeneration of axotomized RGCs that is partially mediated by diffusible NSC-derived factors. Additionally, NSCs integrate with the injured optic nerve and have the potential to form neuronal relays to restore retinofugal connections.     

饱和氢气水对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞保护作用的实验研究

 目的 探索饱和氢气水对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）的保护作用。设计 实验研究。研究对象 SPF级SD大鼠18只。方法 对18只大鼠采用随机数表法随机分为3组,每组6只。均选取右眼为实验眼,左眼为正常对照眼。使用40 g微型视神经夹在大鼠视神经球后2 mm处夹持60 s建立视神经夹伤模型。A组给予饱和氢气水腹腔注射,5 ml/kg,每日1次;B组和C组分别给予饱和氢气水和生理盐水滴眼,每次1滴,每日3次。用药第9天,麻醉下采用3%荧光金双上丘两点注射法逆行标记大鼠RGC,第14天深麻醉下取眼球并处死动物,行视网膜定向铺片,距离视乳头中心上下左右各2 mm 拍摄照片,盲法计数RGC。主要指标 RGC存活率。结果 A组、B组和C组RGC存活率分别为40.35%±13.04%、58.34%±14.00%和43.07%±7.80%（F=3.965, P=0.041）。其中B组与A组和C组之间均有显著性差异（P=0.020;P=0.042）;A组和C组之间无显著性差异（P=0.698）。结论 饱和氢气水滴眼2周对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞可能具有一定的保护作用。（眼科,2014, 23： 107-110）     

大鼠视神经损伤后视网膜小胶质细胞表达的初步观察

目的 研究大鼠视神经损伤后视网膜中小胶质细胞的表达情况.方法 实验研究.选取30只成年雌性健康SD大鼠,按照随机数字表法分为实验组和对照组各15只,分别用于细胞计数、免疫组织化学及免疫印迹实验.实验组在眼球后约1.5 ～2.0 mm处行右眼视神经鞘内切断术,术后5d于视神经断端处用荧光金逆行标记视网膜节细胞,手术后7d处死取材.对照组小鼠右眼行视神经切断术并标记,2d后处死取材.视网膜做铺片用于计数.用免疫组织化学法于视网膜切片上行小胶质细胞的表面标记物Iba-1染色,观察小胶质细胞的形态及数量,同时应用免疫印迹法检测视网膜内Iba-1蛋白含量的变化.两组间比较采用非配对student t-检验进行统计学分析.结果 对照组视网膜中有少量小胶质(Iba-1阳性)细胞表达,并呈非活化状态.视神经切断7d后小胶质细胞明显增多且呈半活化状态,免疫印迹结果显示损伤后Iba-1蛋白表达量明显增加到对照组的2.3倍(t=7.669,P=0.001).视视神经切断7d后节细胞数量为(1182±64)个/mm2,明显减少至对照组的51％(t=23.850,P＜0.01).结论 大鼠视神经损伤后小胶质细胞表达增多且呈部分激活状态,可能是视网膜受损后自我保护的表现之一.     

灯盏细辛对大鼠视神经压榨伤后视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

目的　探讨中草药灯盏细辛对大鼠标定性视神经压榨伤所致的视网膜神经节细胞(RGC)损伤的防护和修复作用。方法　 4 2只健康SD大鼠随机均分为A组和B组。两组均用特制微型视神经夹直接夹持视神经 ,制作成单眼视神经部分压榨伤模型后 ,A组不予任何治疗 ,B组予以灯盏细辛治疗 ,直至处死动物。以上两组按致伤日至处死日动物的存活时间又分为 :A1组和B1组 (损伤后 4d) ,A2 组和B2 组 (损伤后 14d) ,A3 组和B3 组 (损伤后 2 1d) ,每组各 7只大鼠。于处死前 3d双上丘直接注射 3%快蓝标记双眼RGC。处死日行眼球摘除术后 ,将双眼全视网膜组织铺片置于荧光显微镜下 ,在距视乳头 1mm处的颞上、颞下、鼻下及鼻上 4处作荧光摄影 ,并输入计算机经图像分析仪计数RGC。计算RGC标识率 ,即 (损伤眼RGC数 /未损伤眼RGC数 )× 10 0 % ,并进行统计学分析。结果　A组大鼠中 ,A1、A2 及A3 组的RGC标识率分别为 (77 79± 7 11) %、(6 3 76± 3 79) %、(5 4 6 6±4 75 ) % ;B组大鼠中 ,B1、B2 及B3 组的RGC标识率分别为 (80 13± 12 0 3) %、(78 17± 9 19) %及(83 5 9± 12 6 1) %。A2 和A3 组分别与B2 和B3 组比较 ,差异均有非常显著意义 (t=14 10 8,36 2 0 3;P<0 0 1)。结论　大鼠标定性视神经压榨伤后用灯盏细辛治疗 ,     

大鼠视神经压榨伤模型的建立

目的建立大鼠标定性视神经损伤模型.方法健康SD大鼠28只,7只为正常对照组,只进行双上丘注射3%快蓝逆行标记视网膜神经节细胞(retinal ganglion cells,RGCs),另21只为标定性视神经损伤组,依损伤后存活时间的不同再分为A组(4d组)、B组(14d组)及C组(21d组),每组7只.21只大鼠以夹持力为40 g的特制视神经夹,在大鼠眼球后2 mm处夹持视神经4s,制成大鼠标定性视神经压榨伤模型,于处死前3d采用双上丘直接注射3%快蓝(fast blue)法标记双眼RGCs,将全视网膜铺片置于荧光显微镜下,在距视乳头1 mm处的颞上、颞下、鼻下、鼻上4处作荧光摄影(400 ×),并输入计算机经图像分析仪计数RGCs,按RGCs标识率进行统计学比较.RGCs标识率=损伤眼(右眼)RGCs数/未损伤眼(左眼)RGCs数×100%.结果正常大鼠的RGCs标识率右眼RGCs数/左眼RGCs数为99.79%±13.05%,左眼RGCs数/右眼RGCs数为101.86%±13.91%,无论是用左眼的RGCs数比右眼的RGCs数,或用右眼的RGCs数比左眼的RGCs数,其结果无显著性差异(P＞0.5).视神经损伤组的RGCs标识率A组(4d组)RGCs标识率为77.79%±7.11%;B组(14d组)RGCs标识率为63.76%±3.79%;C组(21d组)RGCs标识率为54.66%±4.75%.以上显示,损伤各组的RGCs标识率明显低于正常对照组(P＜0.05),且随着时间的推移,损伤A、B、C组的RGCs标识率渐进性降低.结论用特制的夹持力为40 g的视神经夹,夹持正常大鼠视神经4s,可造成部分性RGCs丧失,随大鼠存活时间的推移,RGCs呈渐进性丧失.眼科学报2001;1799～102.     

视网膜下移植睫状神经营养因子编码基因修饰的细胞保护SD大鼠视神经横断伤后视网膜节细胞变性

目的探讨移植表达睫状神经营养因子(CNTF)的细胞对SD大鼠视神经横断伤后视网膜节细胞的保护作用。方法通过脂质体将CNTF表达质粒转移至人胚肺成纤维细胞,建立稳定、高水平表达CNTF的细胞株。采用双侧背外侧膝状体及上丘核团注射3%荧光金逆行标记视网膜节细胞。将标记后的大鼠分为两组,于标记后7d手术切断眶内段视神经其中一组左眼不做手术作为正常对照组,右眼切断视神经作为手术对照组;另一组双眼均手术切断视神经,左眼注射PBS作为治疗对照组,右眼视网膜下移植表达CNTF的细胞作为实验组。术后5、14、17、21及28d取出眼球,铺片后荧光显微镜观察并计数视网膜内存活的节细胞。结果手术切断眶内段视神经后2周,视网膜内节细胞数减少6744%,视网膜下移植表达CNTF的细胞后第5、17、21d视网膜内存活的节细胞数明显多于治疗对照组(P<005)。结论视网膜下移植高水平表达CNTF的细胞对视网膜节细胞有保护作用。     

Acute endothelin-1 application induces reversible fast axonal transport blockade in adult rat optic nerve

PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of endothelin (ET)-1 on fast axonal transport in the optic nerve. METHODS: Sterile sponge soaked in 1 nM ET-1 was applied to the optic nerve surface of adult Brown Norway rats for 1 hour, after which 20% horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was placed over the superior colliculi (SC). Rats were killed 2, 4, 6, 24, and 48 hours later; the retinas and optic nerves were removed and fixed; and cut sections were processed histochemically, to visualize the time course of HRP transport by light microscopy. Naive and saline controls were processed identically. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) survival after acute ET-1 application was investigated in another group of animals. After retrograde labeling of RGCs with the fluorescent neurotracer Fluorochrome (FG; Fluorogold; Fluorochrome Inc., Denver, CO), 1 nM ET-1 was applied to the optic nerve. Rats were then killed 5, 10, and 21 days later. The retinas were whole mounted and FG-positive RGCs were imaged and quantified with fluorescence microscopy. RESULTS: In naive controls, HRP labeling was observed over the entire nerve at 2 hours but had cleared by 48 hours. HRP labeling of RGCs started at 6 hours, and by 48 hours, uniform labeling was seen throughout the retina. In ET-1-treated optic nerves, transport of HRP was arrested at the distal portion of the nerve at 2 hours. Recovery of transport was evident from 4 hours. At 6 and 24 hours, all nerves showed full recovery with HRP-positive RGCs in the retina, but the ratio of the RGC counts in treated versus fellow untreated eyes (0.66 +/- 0.13 and 0.67 +/- 0.17, respectively) was less than that of the naive control (1.02 +/- 0.28 and 1.05 +/- 0.13, respectively) animals. At 48 hours, recovery was complete, and there was no significant difference in the ratio of RGC counts between ET-1 and naive control groups. No RGC loss was observed after ET-1 application. CONCLUSIONS: Local acute application of ET-1 produces a reversible blockade of rapid axonal transport in optic nerve.     

超声微泡造影剂联合美金胺增强视神经损伤大鼠视网膜神经节细胞保护作用

目的 探讨超声微泡造影剂联合美金胺对视神经损伤大鼠视网膜神经节细胞( RGC)的保护作用.方法 将Sprague-Dawley(SD)雄性成年大鼠40只随机分为正常对照组(A组),假手术组(B组),空白对照组(C组),玻璃体腔单独注射美金胺组(D组),玻璃体腔注射美金胺加超声微泡组(E组)5个组,每组8只大鼠,再将各组随机分为视神经损伤后1、2周2个亚组,各亚组4只大鼠.A组不做任何处理;B组只暴露视神经,不进行钳夹,玻璃体腔注射生理盐水,立即用超声波辐照大鼠眼球;C～E组建立视神经钳夹伤模型后,处理方式分别为C组玻璃体腔注射生理盐水,D组玻璃体腔注射美金胺,E组玻璃体腔注射超声微泡造影剂及美金胺,立即用超声波辐照大鼠眼球.视神经损伤1、2周时,各组行逆行荧光金标记RGC并计数;闪光视觉诱发电位(F-VEP)检测,记录P100波潜伏期及振幅;荧光电子显微镜下观察视网膜细胞形态学改变.结果 逆行荧光金标记RGC结果显示,各处理组视网膜定向铺片上均可见金黄色着染的RGC.A、B组RGC数间差异无统计学意义(q=0.018,0.011;P=0.986,0.873);C～E组RGC数均较A组减少,差异具有统计学意义(F=85.944,P=0.012);D组RGC数多于C组,差异具有统计学意义(q=1.721,1.924;P=0.043,0.037);E组RGC数明显高于C、D组,差异具有统计学意义(q=1.128,1.482,P=0.027,0.008;q=1.453,1.855,P=0.031,0.010).F-VEP检测发现,A、B组P100波潜伏期及振幅间差异无统计学意义(q=0.008,0.019,P=0.981,0.946;q=0.072,0.052,P=0.737,0.851) ;C～E组P100波潜伏期较A组延长,振幅较A组降低,差异具有统计学意义(F=134.312,106.312;P=0.017,0.009).荧光电子显微镜下观察发现,A、B组大鼠视网膜各层结构完整,排列整齐,RGC排列紧密整齐,细胞核均匀深染,胞核大小一致.C～E组大鼠的视网膜不同程度水肿变厚,RGC有不同程度的排列紊乱,空泡化及细胞数目减少.结论 超声微泡造影剂联合美金胺能抑制视神经损伤后大鼠RGC的丢失,促进其视功能的恢复,对视神经损伤大鼠的RGC具有保护作用.     

小干扰RNA保护大鼠视网膜神经节细胞的实验研究

 目的 通过大鼠视神经夹伤模型,研究小干扰RNA（siRNA）对视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）的保护作用。设计 实验研究。 研究对象 SPF级SD大鼠54只。方法 54只SD大鼠随机分为A、B、C三组,每组18只。均选取右眼为实验眼,左眼为正常对照。在球后2 mm处用40 g压力微型视神经夹夹持视神经60 s,做视神经夹伤模型。建立模型后当天,A、B、C三组分别给予玻璃体注射10 μg、20 μg siRNA和生理盐水。视神经夹伤后10天,每组取6只大鼠用荧光金做逆行标记,14天时取标记后的大鼠双眼眼球标本做视网膜铺片并拍摄照片,RGC计数。计算RGC存活率（右眼RGC数/左眼RGC数×100%）。每组其余12只大鼠进一步用蛋白印迹法检测视网膜组织中caspase-3蛋白的表达水平。主要指标 RGC存活率,caspase-3蛋白的表达水平。结果 A、B、C组RGC存活率分别为53.63%±7.35%、57.86%±6.00%、45.00%±4.37%（F=7.11,P=0.029）,其中A组与C组（P=0.025）,B组和C组（P=0.002）之间均有显著性差异;A 组和B组之间无显著性差异（P=0.24）。A、B、C三组视网膜组织中Caspase-3蛋白与内参灰度比值分别为0.20±0.02、0.19±0.02、0.24±0.03（F=9.73,P=0.02）。其中A组与C组（P=0.005）,B组和C组（P=0.001）之间均有显著性差异;A 组和B组之间无显著性差异（P=0.418）。结论 小干扰RNA能有效保护大鼠视神经夹伤模型的RGC,提高RGC的存活率。     

大鼠视神经夹伤模型中莫尼定的视网膜节细胞保护作用

目的 :研究莫尼定对大鼠视神经夹伤模型视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用。方法 :实验用SD大鼠 2 0只随机分为用药组 8只和对照组 12只。所有大鼠右眼用 40 g微型视神经夹紧贴球后夹持视神经 60秒 ,左眼未做夹持。用药组于夹伤前1小时及夹伤后每日腹腔注射莫尼定 1mg/kg ,阴性对照组于夹伤前 1小时及夹伤后每日腹腔注射生理盐水 5ml/kg ,实验观察2 8天。实验结束前 4天双上丘注射 3 %荧光金逆行标记视网膜神经节细胞。做视网膜铺片 ,距离视乳头中心上下左右各2mm拍摄照片 ,使用CPAS图像分析软件做节细胞定量分析 ,节细胞存活率 =右眼节细胞密度 /左眼节细胞密度× 10 0。结果 :用药组、对照组节细胞存活率分别为 61 0 1%和 53 48% ,两者之间存在显著性差异 (P =0 .0 3 5)。结论 :在大鼠视神经夹伤模型中 ,莫尼定具有明显的视网膜节细胞保护作用     

急性眼压升高所致视网膜、视神经及视交叉胶质细胞的早期反应

背景 中枢神经系统以及视网膜中的胶质细胞与神经元关系十分紧密,胶质细胞在神经元损伤和修复过程中发挥着重要作用.急性眼压升高引起的视网膜、视神经及视交叉各部位胶质细胞的早期反应特点以及其与视神经损伤的关系目前尚不清楚. 目的 探讨大鼠视网膜、视神经及视交叉的胶质细胞对急性高眼压的早期反应,同时观察神经前体细胞标志物巢蛋白( nestin)在反应性胶质细胞中的表达. 方法 成年雌性Wistar大鼠9只,分为正常对照组3只和急性高眼压组6只,急性高眼压组大鼠采用右眼前房灌注生理盐水的方法升高大鼠眼压至110 mmHg,持续60 min.于术后第3天和第7天用过量麻醉法处死各组动物各3只,摘出眼球分离视神经和大脑标本,并制作冰冻切片.利用Nissl染色的方法测量高眼压眼视网膜内层厚度,观察视网膜和视交叉的大体形态.用βⅢ-tubulin免疫荧光染色法标记视神经内的视网膜神经节细胞(RGCs)轴突,用胶质纤维酸性蛋白(GFAP)和nestin双重标记显示视网膜、视神经及视交叉的胶质细胞反应,并对两组结果进行比较.结果 正常大鼠的视网膜、视神经以及视交叉内均可见到一定量的GFAP阳性胶质细胞,但nestin的表达量很低.急性眼压升高后的第3天,视网膜内丛状层厚度明显变薄,RGCs数目较损伤前减少约46％.视网膜内胶质细胞GFAP的表达显著增加,细胞突起由神经纤维层伸展至整个视网膜,增生的胶质细胞内可见nestin的明显表达.视神经内RGCs轴突发生变性样改变,GFAP阳性胶质细胞内nestin的表达较眼压升高前明显增加.同损伤眼相对应的一侧视交叉的横断面积减小,出现大量星状GFAP和nestin共表达的胶质细胞.以上改变在眼压升高后第7天更趋明显.结论 急性眼压升高早期即可引起RGCs的丢失及轴突的变性,视觉神经元改变的同时伴随胶质细胞的反应,增生的胶质细胞表达神经前体细胞的标志物.视网膜与视神经和视交叉的改变在时间上具有一定的同步性.     

Inflammatory demyelination induces axonal injury and retinal ganglion cell apoptosis in experimental optic neuritis

Optic neuritis is an inflammatory disease of the optic nerve that often occurs in patients with multiple sclerosis and leads to permanent visual loss mediated by retinal ganglion cell (RGC) damage. Optic neuritis occurs with high frequency in relapsing-remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis, with significant loss of RGCs. In the current study, mechanisms of RGC loss in this model were examined to determine whether inflammation-induced axonal injury mediates apoptotic death of RGCs. RGCs were retrogradely labeled by injection of fluorogold into superior colliculi of 6-7 week old female SJL/J mice. EAE was induced one week later by immunization with proteolipid protein peptide. Optic neuritis was detected by inflammatory cell infiltration on histological examination as early as 9 days after immunization, with peak incidence by day 12. Demyelination occurred 1-2 days after inflammation began. Loss of RGC axons was detected following demyelination, with significant axonal loss occurring by day 13 post-immunization. Axonal loss occurred prior to loss of RGC bodies at day 14. Apoptotic cells were also observed at day 14 in the ganglion cell layer of eyes with optic neuritis, but not in control eyes. Together these results suggest that inflammatory cell infiltration mediates demyelination and leads to direct axonal injury in this model of experimental optic neuritis. RGCs die by an apoptotic mechanism triggered by axonal injury. Potential neuroprotective therapies to prevent permanent RGC loss from optic neuritis will likely need to be initiated prior to axonal injury to preserve neuronal function.     

Expression of insulin‐like growth factor 1 receptor in rat retina following optic nerve injury

Purpose: To investigate the apoptosis in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and insulin‐like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF‐1R) in the retina following optic nerve crush. Methods: Healthy Wistar rats (N = 70) were divided into two groups: a normal control group and an optic nerve injury group. Immunohistochemistry and flow cytometry were performed to detect the expression of IGF‐1R and to measure the apoptosis of RGCs, respectively. Results: Immunohistochemistry revealed that at 1 hr after optic nerve injury, IGF‐1R immunoreactivity began to increase and reached a maximal level at 24 hr (p < 0.05), where it remained elevated up to 14 days after injury. RGC apoptosis in the normal control group was 0.53%, while the apoptosis rate in the optic nerve injury group increased over time. The apoptosis rate in the optic nerve injury group was 1.4% at 1 hr, 4.4% at 6 hr, 5.2% at 12 hr and reached a maximal level (8.5%) at 24 hr. Subsequently, the rate declined to 1.9% 7 days after injury and 0.9% 2 weeks after injury. Conclusion: The IGF‐1R immunereactivity in the retina increased after optic nerve injury. IGF‐1R may regulate the apoptosis and regeneration of RGCs at different stages after optic nerve injury.     

Retinal glutamate transporter changes in experimental glaucoma and after optic nerve transection in the rat

PURPOSE: High levels of glutamate can be toxic to retinal ganglion cells. Effective buffering of extracellular glutamate by retinal glutamate transporters is therefore important. This study was conducted to investigate whether glutamate transporter changes occur with two models of optic nerve injury in the rat. METHODS: Glaucoma was induced in one eye of 35 adult Wistar rats by translimbal diode laser treatment to the trabecular meshwork. Twenty-five more rats underwent unilateral optic nerve transection. Two glutamate transporters, GLAST (EAAT-1) and GLT-1 (EAAT-2), were studied by immunohistochemistry and quantitative Western blot analysis. Treated and control eyes were compared 3 days and 1, 4, and 6 weeks after injury. Optic nerve damage was assessed semiquantitatively in epoxy-embedded optic nerve cross sections. RESULTS: Trabecular laser treatment resulted in moderate intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation in all animals. After 1 to 6 weeks of experimental glaucoma, all treated eyes had significant optic nerve damage. Glutamate transporter changes were not detected by immunohistochemistry. Western blot analysis demonstrated significantly reduced GLT-1 in glaucomatous eyes compared with control eyes at 3 days (29.3% +/- 6.7%, P = 0.01), 1 week (55.5% +/- 13.6%, P = 0.02), 4 weeks (27.2% +/- 10.1%, P = 0.05), and 6 weeks (38.1% +/- 7.9%, P = 0.01; mean reduction +/- SEM, paired t-tests, n = 5 animals per group, four duplicate Western blot analyses per eye). The magnitude of the reduction in GLT-1 correlated significantly with mean IOP in the glaucomatous eye (r(2) = 0.31, P = 0.01, linear regression). GLAST was significantly reduced (33.8% +/- 8.1%, mean +/- SEM) after 4 weeks of elevated IOP (P = 0.01, paired t-test, n = 5 animals per group). In contrast to glaucoma, optic nerve transection resulted in an increase in GLT-1 compared with the control eye (P = 0.01, paired t-test, n = 15 animals). There was no significant change in GLAST after transection. CONCLUSIONS: GLT-1 and GLAST were significantly reduced in an experimental rat glaucoma model, a response that was not found after optic nerve transection. Reductions in GLT-1 and GLAST may increase the potential for glutamate-induced injury to RGC in glaucoma.     

晶状体损伤对视神经损伤后RGCs的保护作用及其机制

背景大鼠Miiller细胞提取液能够促进离体培养的视网膜神经节细胞（RGCs）存活及轴突的再生,伴晶状体损伤的视神经外伤眼RGCs存活率提高,但Milller细胞和晶状体损伤在促进RGCs存活方面的关系鲜见报道。目的探讨伴晶状体损伤的视神经外伤眼Mtiller细胞对RGCs存活的促进作用及其机制。方法清洁级成年Wistar大鼠48只按随机数字表法随机分为伪手术组、视神经损伤组、晶状体联合视神经损伤组。伪手术组大鼠手术中暴露但不损伤视神经,视神经损伤组大鼠行视神经横断伤,晶状体联合视神经损伤组行视神经横断伤联合晶状体针刺伤,并导致晶状体混浊。术后7d及14d各组分别取8只大鼠处死后制备视网膜标本。采用苏木精一伊红染色观察各组大鼠视网膜和RGCs的形态学改变,采用免疫组织化学法检测各组大鼠视网膜内核层胶质纤维酸性蛋白（GFAP）标记的Muller细胞,光学显微镜下计数各组大鼠RGCs数量及GFAP阳性标记的Muller细胞数量。结果术后7d及14d,伪手术组大鼠RGCs的数量分别为（52．98±1．90）个／高倍视野和（51．81±3．09）个／高倍视野,差异无统计学意义（t=0．910,P=0．378）;术后14d视神经损伤组大鼠RGCs数量为（22．67±1．94）个／高倍视野,明显少于术后7d的（36．61±1．69）个／高倍视野,差异有统计学意义（t=15．312,P=0．000）;术后14d晶状体联合视神经损伤组RGCs数量为（35．69±1．80）个／高倍视野,明显少于术后7d的（50．76±2．77）个／高倍视野,差异有统计学意义（t=12．920,P=0．000）。术后7d及14d,晶状体联合视神经损伤组存活的RGCs数量均多于视神经损伤组,差异均有统计学意义（7d：t=102．840,P=0．000;14d：t=164．020,P=0．000）;术后14d晶状体联合视神经损伤组存活的RGCs：牧量少于伪手术组,差异有统计学意义（t=187．04,P=0．034）。术后7d及14d,伪手术组大鼠视网膜内核层均未见GFAP阳性标记的Muller细胞;视神经损伤组大鼠内核层GFAP阳性标记Muller细胞数量分别为（29．38＋2．04）个／高倍视野和（19．07±2．14）个／高倍视野,差异有统计学意义（t=-9．868,P=0．000）。晶状体联合视神经损伤组大鼠内核层GFAP阳性标记的Muller细胞数量分别为（48．96±2．80）个／高倍视野和（46．73±1．50）个／高倍视野,差异无统计学意义（t=1．987,P=0．067）。术后7d及14d,晶状体联合视神经损伤组大鼠内核层GFAP阳性Muller细胞数量均较视神经损伤组增多,差异均有统计学意义（7d：t=-15．997,P=0．000;14d：t=-29．938,P=0．000）。结论在视神经损伤合并晶状体刺伤时,晶状体损伤可诱导Muller细胞活化,进而促进视神经损伤后RGCs的存活。     

Number of ganglion cells in glaucoma eyes compared with threshold visual field tests in the same persons

PURPOSE: To compare the number of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) topographically mapped with specific visual field threshold test data in the same eyes among glaucoma patients. METHODS: Seventeen eyes of 13 persons with well-documented glaucoma histories and Humphrey threshold visual field tests (San Leandro, CA) were obtained from eye banks. RGC number was estimated by histologic counts of retinal sections and by counts of remaining axons in the optic nerves. The locations of the retinal samples corresponded to specific test points in the visual field. The data for glaucoma patients were compared with 17 eyes of 17 persons who were group matched for age, had no ocular history, and had normal eyes by histologic examination. RESULTS: The mean RGC loss for the entire retina averaged 10.2%, indicating that many eyes had early glaucoma damage. RGC body loss averaged 35.7% in eyes with corrected pattern SD probability less than 0.5%. When upper to lower retina RGC counts were compared with their corresponding visual field data within each eye, a 5-dB loss in sensitivity was associated with 25% RGC loss. For individual points that were abnormal at a probability less than 0.5%, the mean RGC loss was 29%. In control eyes, the loss of RGCs with age was estimated as 7205 cells per year in persons between 55 and 95 years of age. In optic nerves from glaucoma subjects, smaller axons were significantly more likely to be present than larger axons (R2 = 0.78, P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: At least 25% to 35% RGC loss is associated with statistical abnormalities in automated visual field testing. In addition, these data corroborate previous findings that RGCs with larger diameter axons preferentially die in glaucoma.