The distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap for coverage defects over the distal third of the leg and foot

A traditional-designed distally based sural flap centralized on the axis of the (medial) sural nerve and the lesser saphenous vein has been used widely for coverage of the distal third of the leg, ankle, malleoli, and foot. However, a variety of 5% to 47% of flap necrosis after the flap elevation and transposition were recorded in the literature. The unreliability of the distal part of the flap, especially when skin paddle located at the proximal third of the leg is at least partly due to their subfascial coursing of the median superficial sural artery and the medial sural nerve as well as the lesser saphenous vein. Based on the anatomic characteristics of the sural nerve and previous angiographic studies, a longitudinal chain-linked axial vascular network along with the sural nerve and the lateral sural nerve had been demonstrated on the posterolateral side of the leg from lateral retromalleolar gutter to the fibular head. A distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap centralized on this longitudinal neurovascular network was designed and used to reconstruct and cover the defects over the distal third of the leg, lateral malleolus, foot, and Achilles tendon. In this report we retrospectively review the clinical outcomes. This flap was used in 11 patients, including six young children aged 3 to 6 years. All flaps survived fully without complications except one flap which experienced postoperative infection which was controlled by dressing change and antibiotic application. Relevant surgical anatomy and detailed surgical techniques for elevation of the flap and its versatile usage are presented. Risks leading to flap necrosis, safe pedicle design, and manipulations etc. are discussed. In conclusion, this distally based posterolateral supramalleolar neurofasciocutaneous island flap is reliable and very useful for covering defects over the distal leg, ankle, heel, foot, and Achilles tendon, especially in young children.     

Reverse sural artery flap: caveats for success

Complex open wounds of the distal third of the leg and ankle remain a reconstructive challenge for the plastic surgeon. In many cases, these wounds are best addressed with a free tissue transfer. Although this group has performed more than 400 free flaps to the leg during the past 6 years, free tissue transfer can be an arduous operation that requires a team approach and substantial donor site morbidity for the patient. In recent years, the authors have favored the reverse sural artery fasciocutaneous flap in 11 patients for its ease of dissection, limited morbidity, and preservation of major vessels to the limb. Caveats for successful performance of the reverse sural artery flap include Doppler evidence of patent peroneal perforators, placement of a lazy T-shape skin paddle over the distal gastrocnemius muscle bellies, inclusion of the lesser saphenous vein to augment venous drainage, and, lastly, careful dissection to provide a wide adipofascial pedicle.     

The distally based lateral sural neuro-lesser saphenous veno-fasciocutaneous flap: anatomical basis and clinical applications

Background

Soft tissue management around the lower third of the leg and foot presents a considerable challenge to the plastic surgeon. The aim of this research was to investigate the anatomical relationships of artery, nerve, vein and other adjacent structures in the posterolateral region of the calf, and our experience with using a distally based island flap pedicled with the lateral sural nerve and the lesser saphenous vein for soft tissue reconstruction of lower third of leg, foot, and ankle defects in 15 patients.

Materials and methods

Five fresh cadavers (ten lower limbs) were infused with colored red latex. The origin of the nutrient vessel of the lesser saphenous vein and the lateral sural nerve was identified. Based on the anatomical studies, an island flap supplied by the vascular axis of the lesser saphenous vein and the lateral sural nerve was designed for clinical reparative applications in 15 cases.

Results

The nutrient vessel of the lesser saphenous vein and the lateral sural nerve originates from the superficial sural artery, musculocutaneous perforators of the posterior tibial artery, and septocutaneous perforators of the peroneal artery in different segment of the calf. Meanwhile, these vessels have many sub-branches nourishing subcutaneous tissue and skin, form a favorable vascular chain around the nerve and the vein, and also communicate with vascular plexus of superficial and deep fascia. Among 15 flaps, 13 showed complete survival (86.66 %), while marginal flap necrosis occurred in one patient (6.67 %) and distal wound dehiscence in another (6.67 %). Their appearance and function were satisfactory, with feeling maintained in the heel and lateral side of the foot.

Conclusions

The distally based flap pedicled with the lateral sural nerve and lesser saphenous vein was a reliable source for repairing soft tissue defects in the lower leg and foot due to its advantages of infection control, high survival rate, and sufficient blood supply without the need to sacrifice a major blood vessel.     

小隐静脉-腓肠外侧神经蒂逆行皮瓣解剖及临床应用研究

目的 介绍小隐静脉-腓肠外侧神经蒂逆行皮瓣的应用解剖及临床应用经验。方法 取5具新鲜尸体（10侧下肢）分别沿髂外动脉插管，加压注入红色乳胶，观测小腿后外侧不同阶段小隐静脉、腓肠外侧神经滋养血管的来源及对相应部位皮肤的血供。临床设计小隐静脉-腓肠外侧神经蒂逆行皮瓣修复小腿下段、踝部及足跟创面9例。结果 小腿后外侧上、中、下1／3段分别由腓肠浅动脉、胫后动脉肌皮穿支、腓动脉肌间隙穿支所发出的血管滋养小隐静脉-腓肠外侧神经，形成了以神经、血管为中心的串状动脉网，与深筋膜层血管网及皮下血管网相互吻合。临床应用9个皮瓣（9例），完全成活，足跟及足外侧缘无感觉丧失区。结论 小隐静脉-腓肠外侧神经蒂逆行皮瓣血运丰富、成活可靠，是修复下肢皮肤、软组织缺损的有效方法。     

Measures to prevent complications of distally based neurovascular sural flaps

Several publications in recent years have proven unbroken popularity of superficial sural artery flaps for the coverage of defects of the lower leg and proximal foot. However, complications are being discussed rarely. The realistic complication rate is up to 59%, given corresponding comorbidities, risk factors, or performance errors. Twelve distally based neurovascular sural flaps were used for reconstruction of heel, ankle, and lower-leg defects between 2003 and 2005. The following pre- and postoperative procedures were performed as a routine: An additional arteriography was done preoperatively to prove the patency of the peroneal artery. Acoustic Doppler ultrasound was used to identify the lesser saphenous vein and the concomitant vessels (perforators of the peroneal artery) of the sural nerve. An enlarged skin paddle with a tail of skin over the pedicle at the point of rotation was harvested intraoperatively to take pressure off the vessels and facilitate primary closure. Postoperatively, external fixation provides strict immobilization of the affected leg. Following these measures, no flap loss was observed in the presented series, and only few minor complications occurred.     

Modified distally based sural neuro-veno-fasciocutaneous flap: anatomical study and clinical applications

The distally based sural neuro-veno-fasciocutaneous flap has been used widely for reconstruction of foot and ankle soft-tissue defects. The distal pivot point of the flap is designed at the lowest septocutaneous perforator from the peroneal artery of the posterolateral septum, which is, on average, 5 cm (4-7 cm) above the lateral malleolus. A longer neuro-veno-adipofascial pedicle would be needed to reversely reach the distal foot defect when the flap is dissected based on this perforating branch, which may result in more trauma in flap elevation and morbidity of the donor site. In this article, we explored new pivot points for this distally based flap in an anatomic study of 30 fresh cadavers. The results showed that the peroneal artery terminates into two branches: the posterior lateral malleolus artery and lateral calcaneal artery. These two branches also send off cutaneous perforators at about 3 and 1 cm above the tip of lateral malleolus, respectively, which can be used as arterial pivot points for the flap. A communicating branch between the lesser saphenous vein and the peroneal venae comitantes was found, accompanied by the perforator of the posterior lateral malleolus artery. This modified, distally based sural flap with lower pivot points was successfully transferred for repair of soft-tissue defects in 21 patients. The size of flaps ranged from 4 x 3 cm to 18 x 12 cm. All flaps survived without complications. Neither arterial ischemia nor venous congestion was noted. In conclusion, the vascular pivot point of a distally based sural flap can be safely designed at 1.5 cm proximal to the tip of the lateral malleolus. This modified flap provides a valuable tool for repair of foot and ankle soft-tissue defects.     

Salvage of the distal foot using the distally based sural island flap

The authors describe their additional experience with the distally based sural island flap for reconstruction of the whole foot, including the forefoot area in 8 patients. The flap is vascularized by the lowermost perforating branches of the peroneal artery. The skin flap can be elevated, based on the lesser saphenous vein and its accompanying arteries, in all parts of the sural region. This modification allows a farther reach of the flap for coverage of the distal foot and sole. All flaps, innervated by the lateral sural cutaneous nerves, were able to provide protective sensation in the distal soles. In 7 patients the flaps survived completely, and only 1 patient had partial necrosis of the flap. The advantage of this flap is its constant and reliable blood supply without sacrifice of the major artery. Elevation of the flap is simple and rapid. This flap is a versatile alternative that should be considered prior to a free flap transfer.     

腓肠神经-小隐静脉逆行岛状肌皮瓣的局部解剖与临床应用

目的：介绍腓肠神经-小隐静脉逆行岛状肌皮瓣的局部血管解剖研究与临床应用经验。方法解剖3个成人小腿灌注标本,观察腓肠神经-小隐静脉血管轴与腓肠肌内外侧头肌支和肌皮穿支之间的吻合关系,根据观察结果设计以腓动脉肌间隔穿支供血的逆行岛状腓肠肌皮瓣修复4例足踝部创面,皮瓣面积10～16 cm ×6～9 cm。结果在腓肠神经穿出深筋膜前,腓肠神经-小隐静脉血管轴与两侧的腓肠肌肌支间各有2～4个吻合。在穿出深筋膜后,与两侧的腓肠肌肌皮穿支间各有2～3个吻合。在腓肠肌腱腹交界（约为小腿中点）的近侧2～4 cm 内,有1～3支肌皮穿支血管与腓肠神经血管轴相交通。据此设计的肌皮瓣完全成活。结论腓肠神经-小隐静脉逆行岛状肌皮瓣血供可靠、转移方便,较传统的腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣可切取面积更大,是修复足踝部组织缺损的好方法。     

腓肠神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损

目的：总结应用腓肠神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣修复足踝部皮肤软组织缺损的经验。方法：从2006年2月～2008年12月,笔者应用腓肠神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损共12例,皮瓣最大15cm×10cm,最小6cm×5cm,筋膜蒂宽度为4～5cm,皮瓣旋转点至外踝尖距离5～7cm。皮瓣剥离的深度在腓肠肌肌膜深面,将小隐静脉和腓肠神经包含于内。蒂部均留有2cm宽度的皮肤,走明道向受区旋转。结果：12例皮瓣全部成活,无供血不足及静脉回流障碍。结论：腓肠神经营养血管远端蒂皮瓣血运丰富,制作简便,防止蒂部受压是成活率高的保证。     

Clinical and anatomical study of the distally based lesser saphenous veno-lateral sural neurocutaneous flap for lower extremity coverage

Background

The distally based sural flap has been widely and successfully used to reconstruct soft tissue defects of the distal third of the lower leg and foot. Sensory loss and venous congestion are possible complications of this treatment, but there has been limited research focused on improving the sensory loss and veneous congestion. This study aimed to determine the spatial relationship between the lesser saphenous vein and the cutaneous nerves, the venous anatomy in the lower leg, and the nerve distribution in the lateral dorsum of the foot, and we presented our clinical experience.

Materials and methods

Twenty freshly amputated lower limbs were dissected in the 2 h following amputation. The lesser saphenous vein, medial/lateral sural nerve, and sural nerve were identified. Based on the anatomical studies, an island flap supplied by the vascular axis of the lesser saphenous vein and the lateral sural nerve was designed for clinical reparative applications in 24 cases.

Results

We indicated the spatial relationship between the lesser saphenous vein and the cutaneous nerves and the venous anatomy in the lower leg. Among 24 flaps, 21 showed complete survival (87.5 %), while marginal flap necrosis occurred in two patients (8.33 %) and distal wound dehiscence in another (4.17 %). No symptomatic neuromas were observed. Their appearance and functioning were satisfactory, with filling maintained in the heel and lateral side of the foot.

Conclusion

The distally based lesser saphenous veno-lateral sural neurocutaneous flap provides effective coverage of variable-sized soft tissue defects on the lower third of the lower leg and foot, without sensory loss and venous congestion.     

保留腓肠神经的血管筋膜蒂皮瓣的解剖及临床研究

目的 研究保留腓肠神经的腓动脉穿支皮瓣的可行性、方法 及适应证,以改进常规腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣术后足外侧皮肤感觉障碍的缺陷. 方法 选择8具16个成人下肢标本,其中新鲜标本8个,经股动、静脉分别灌注红蓝色乳胶48 h后,解剖研究腓肠神经及小隐静脉伴行动脉的关系.临床应用保留腓肠神经主干或内、外侧支的血管筋膜皮瓣修复足踝皮肤缺损12例. 结果 腓肠神经及小隐静脉有各自的伴行血管,伴行血管与腓肠神经及小隐静脉的距离不恒定,在1～8哪之间,两条伴行血管相互交通.腓动脉最低穿支距踝尖12～32 min,平均22 mm,穿支直径1.0～1.5 mm,平均1.2mm.临床保留腓肠神经主干、内侧支或外侧支的皮瓣12例.术后4例腓肠神经支配区皮肤感觉正常;4例S2+～S3;2例外踝区域S0感觉消失,2例足外侧S1.经6～24个月的随访,4例S2+～S3于术后5～30 d恢复达基本正常. 结论 保留神经对保存足部皮肤感觉有积极的意义,腓肠神经及小隐静脉各有一条伴行动脉是保留神经的解剖基础.当营养血管绕过神经,很难分离神经时,可以术中放弃保留神经.     

腓动脉穿支腓肠神经营养血管游离皮瓣修复手足软组织缺损

目的 探讨腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣游离移植的手术方法及临床应用效果.方法 切取由腓动脉发出单一皮穿支腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣,游离移植修复手背及涉及足前部的足踝部皮肤软组织缺损.皮瓣穿支动脉、小隐静脉分别与受区邻近的主干动脉分支及头静脉或大隐静脉吻合建立血液循环;亦可单纯吻合穿支动、静脉供血.皮瓣腓肠神经与受区皮神经吻合.结果 2005年1月至2007年12月,于临床应用12例.皮瓣切取面积12 cm× 7 cm～18 cm×11 cm,皮瓣全部成活.术后随访7～27个月,皮瓣外观、质地优良,两点辨别觉7～12 mm,肢体功能恢复满意.结论 本术式综合了游离皮瓣、穿支皮瓣与皮神经营养血管皮瓣的优点,皮瓣设计灵活,切取方便,惨复位置随意,血供可靠,是修复手足皮肤软组织缺损的较好方法.     

The coverage of skin defects over the foot and ankle using the distally based sural neurocutaneous flaps: experience of 21 cases.

Skin defects over the foot and ankle remain a challenge to plastic surgeons. The distally based sural neurocutaneous flap is a reliable and effective procedure. The authors have performed 21 cases (22 flaps) since 2000. Twenty-one flaps survived uneventfully. The recipient range included the dorsum of the foot, heel and forefoot. The texture, thickness and colour were satisfactory although pressure ulcers occurred on flaps over the weight-bearing region, such as sole. The factors that influence the survival of the flap are the width of the pedicle, ligation of the lesser saphenous vein and complete vascular network around the ankle.     

逆行胫后动脉穿支蒂隐神经营养血管(肌)皮瓣修复足踝部软组织缺损

目的报道逆行胫后动脉穿支蒂隐神经营养血管(肌)皮瓣修复足踝关节周围软组织缺损的手术方法和临床效果。方法对48例足踝关节周围皮肤软组织缺损的患者采用逆行胫后动脉穿支蒂隐神经营养血管(肌)皮瓣修复,单纯逆行胫后动脉穿支蒂隐神经营养血管皮瓣39例,肌皮瓣9例;其中胫后动脉穿支筋膜蒂神经营养血管皮瓣29例,胫后动脉穿支血管蒂营养血管皮瓣19例,软组织缺损大小12 cm×9 cm~4 cm×3 cm,皮瓣面积13 cm×9.5cm~6 cm×5 cm。结果 43例皮瓣完全存活,5例皮瓣远端部分坏死,经积极换药、清创植皮修复。皮瓣术后轻度肿胀,无感染及淤血,皮瓣蒂部无臃肿。术后随访6~18个月,皮瓣质地优良,肢体外形与功能恢复满意,供区植皮术后恢复保护性感觉。结论胫后动脉穿支蒂隐神经营养血管皮瓣血供可靠,质地优良,是修复足踝关节周围软组织缺损的良好选择。     

两套血供的小腿外侧皮瓣逆行转位修复足踝部软组织缺损

目的 介绍两套血供的改良小腿外侧皮瓣逆行转位修复老年人足踝部软组织缺损的临床体会。 方法 对足踝部软组织缺损、创面骨肌腱外露、需作皮瓣修复的老年病例,在传统的小腿外侧逆行岛状皮瓣及穿支带腓肠神经营养血管逆行岛状皮瓣的基础上,利用小腿外侧皮瓣中下段穿出的骨皮动脉皮支及腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣的供血穿支均发自腓动脉的特点,将皮瓣设计于小腿后外侧,用兼顾传统小腿外侧皮瓣及腓肠神经营养血管皮瓣在供m范围的重叠区域而形成两套血供的改良小腿外侧逆行岛状皮瓣修复。结果临床共应用11例,所有皮瓣术后均顺利成活,供区植皮愈合良好,经3～9个月随访,6例皮瓣外观满意,踝关节伸屈功能正常,基本恢复行走功能;5例合并伸肌腱缺损者3个月后作肌腱移植重建后恢复行走功能。 结论 采用两套血供的改良小腿外侧皮瓣逆行转位是修复老年人足踝部软组织缺损的好方法。     

Lower-limb reconstruction utilizing the reverse sural artery flap-gastrocnemius muscle cuff technique

The reverse sural artery flap was described in 1992 and has become an acceptable technique of lower-limb reconstruction. In 2001, Al-Qattan introduced the concept of raising the reverse sural artery flap with a gastrocnemius muscle cuff for lower limb reconstruction and used it in 9 cases and noted a dramatic reduction in the ischemic events with this distally based flap technique. In the current paper, 30 consecutive patients with lower-limb defects were operated upon between 2001 and 2004. All patients underwent reconstruction utilizing Al-Qattan's reverse sural artery flap-gastrocnemius muscle cuff technique. The defects were classified into 4 types: open lower and midtibial fractures (n = 9), Achilles tendon defects (n = 6), heel defects exposing the calcaneus (n = 7), and complex ankle and foot defects exposing bone (n = 8). No cases of major vascular compromise were noted. Two diabetic patients had minor complications in the flap: one patient developed mild venous congestion and epidermolysis limited to the distal edge of the flap, and the second patient had a minor delayed wound healing at the most distal part of the flap. Both patients did not require further surgery. No cases of infection, hematoma, or painful neuroma were noted. After a mean follow-up period of 2 years (range 1-4 years), all flaps remained stable and all Achilles tendon repairs remained intact. The results of this series compares favorably with the results of other series in the literature, indicating the versatility and the better blood supply of the reverse sural artery flap when raised with a gastrocnemius muscle cuff. Other technical tips to ensure a successful outcome are also discussed.     

膝部软组织缺损的修复

总结１９８４年～１９９３年，应用腓肠肌皮瓣、腓肠外侧动脉皮瓣、隐动脉皮瓣、筋膜皮瓣等带蒂移位，修复膝部大面积软组织缺损４９例的临床效果。其中４７例一次手术成功，１例皮瓣感染坏死，１例环绕膝部瘢痕疙瘩切除后，以游离皮片移植治愈。经平均３年６个月随访，膝关节功能恢复正常或基本正常，皮瓣不臃肿，皮瓣的血运、弹性、颜色与正常皮肤相似。顺行转移的皮瓣感觉功能正常，但远侧稍感麻木。认为由于膝部功能的特殊性，采用皮瓣转移术修复缺损是有效的方法     

小隐静脉栓塞对腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣影响的实验研究

目的探讨小隐静脉栓塞对远端带蒂腓肠神经营养血管逆行皮瓣的影响。方法将30只大白兔小腿后侧切取远端蒂腓肠神经岛状皮瓣,随机分为三组,每组10个皮瓣。第1组在蒂部保留小隐静脉干;第2组在蒂部远端1cm将小隐静脉干结扎;第3组在蒂部远端1 cm栓塞小隐静脉干。结果第1组皮瓣的小隐静脉充盈较第2、3组显著,且第1组皮瓣均有明显淤血、肿胀。第3组皮瓣存活率（87.5%）明显高于第1组（62.3%）和第2组（81.5%）,差异均具有极显著意义（P〈0.01）。结论在小隐静脉远端栓塞或结扎阻断静脉血流灌入,均能显著提高远端蒂皮瓣的存活率,在蒂部结扎小隐静脉影响皮瓣远端供血和皮瓣成活面积。     

腓肠神经营养血管蒂逆行岛状皮瓣的临床应用

目的探讨应用腓肠神经营养血管蒂岛状皮瓣的临床效果。方法以小腿腓肠神经营养血管远端为蒂设计并切取皮瓣,逆行转移修复小腿下段、踝部及足跟部皮肤缺损16例。结果随访6个月～2年,16例皮瓣中除1例皮瓣远端边缘部分坏死外,其余皮瓣全部成活。结论腓肠神经营养血管蒂岛状皮瓣具有血供可靠、操作简单、成活率高以及不牺牲知名血管等特点,是修复小腿下段、踝部及足跟部皮肤软组织缺损的理想方法之一。     

The Distally Based Sural Artery Flap for Ankle and Foot Coverage

The sural artery flap is a distally based fasciocutaneous flap that has many advantages to offer for coverage in the foot and ankle area. It has the largest arc of rotation of all the regional flaps and does not require sacrifice of any major artery, and moderate-to-large-sized defects can be covered adequately. The dissection technique is simple, and donor site morbidity is minimal. We report our experience with 17 cases. Age range was from 13 to 56 years. Ten (59%) defects were posttraumatic, 3 (17%) were related to reconstructive surgery of the foot or tendon Achilles', 2 (11%) resulted from tumor resection, and 1 each were from infection and gunshot wound. The smallest flap was 6 x 4 cm and the largest was 15 x 12 cm, with the average size being 11 x 7.5 cm. In 5 cases, the donor site was closed primarily, and in other cases, split-thickness skin graft was needed. The short saphenous vein was included in the pedicle in all cases. There was no incidence of complete flap necrosis. Follow-up ranged from 3 to 30 months. Two cases (12%) developed partial superficial necrosis. In 1 case, there was partial wound dehiscence that needed debridement and repair. Another case had postoperative discharge, which subsided after removal of the calcaneal plate. None of the patients complained of any functional problem related to loss of sensation along the lateral border of the foot. The sural island flap is a reliable, safe, and easy method of providing soft tissue coverage in the area of the foot and ankle.