Epidural analgesia with 4 mg of morphine following caesarean section: effect of injected volume

The efficacy and side effects of epidural bolus injection of 4 mg of morphine in a volume of 2 ml, 10 ml, or 20 ml (groups I, II and III) for postoperative analgesia after caesarean section (60 patients) were evaluated. All patients had epidural anaesthesia established up to T4 level with 0.5% bupivacaine 18–20 ml, supplemented with 2% lidocaine with adrenaline, when necessary. Morphine 4 mg in either of the three volumes was injected through the epidural catheter in random order after delivery of the baby. Six patients in each group reported no pain during the 24-h follow-up period. No additional pain medication during the 24 h after surgery was required in 11, 14 and 10 patients in groups I, II and III, respectively. Most of the others managed with the addition of a single dose of rectal ketoprofen. There were no differences in analgesic therapy between the groups. Pruritus was the most common adverse effect (18/20, 19/20 and 18/20 in groups I, II and III, respectively). 10/20, 12/20 and 14/20 (N.S.) patients had nausea and vomiting in groups I, II and III, respectively. Metoclopramide, prescribed for persistent nausea, was given to 4/20 patients in group I, 6/20 patients in group II and 9/20 patients in group III (N.S.). After removal of the urinary catheter 7/20 patient in group III required carbachol for urinary retention compared to 3/20 and 4/20 patients in groups I and II (N.S.). In this study a tenfold dilution of 4 mg of morphine did not influence the quality of analgesia after caesarean section or cause statistically significant differences in the appearance of side-effects.     

Lumbar epidural diamorphine following thoracic surgery

Twenty-two patients received a single dose of diamorphine 5 mg through a lumbar epidural catheter before thoracic surgery. The patients were transferred after surgery to a high dependency unit where they were allocated randomly to receive either an infusion of epidural diamorphine at a rate of 1 mg/hour (group 1) or bolus doses of epidural diamorphine 5 mg on demand (group 2). There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in visual analogue pain scores in the first 18 postoperative hours. Arterial carbon dioxide tension was elevated in both groups and was consistently higher in group 1 than in group 2, with a statistically significant intergroup difference 12 hours after operation. Respiratory rate was not a useful index of respiratory depression. The commonest nonrespiratory side effect was urinary retention, but the incidences of this and other minor side effects were similar in the two groups.     

Patient-controlled analgesia with morphine and droperidol following caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia

Background: The addition of droperidol to morphine for patient-controlled analgesia reduces the incidence of nausea and vomiting, but may result in unwanted side effects.
Method: We studied 40 women randomised to receive morphine sulphate with or without added droperidol (10mg droperidol/60mg morphine) by patient-controlled analgesia following elective caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia.
Results: Median morphine demand in the 20h after surgery was 74mg with morphine alone, and 53mg with added droperidol, the median consumption of which was 8.8mg. The incidence of nausea was reduced from 80% to 38.8% ( P <0.01), and that of emesis from 55% to 16.7% ( P <0.05) by the addition of droperidol. Psychomotor function was significantly impaired to a similar degree in both groups and there was no significant difference in sedation scores or pain scores. Subjective drowsiness which resulted in withdrawal from the study occurred in two patients, both of whom were receiving droperidol, and though all patients who completed the study were satisfied with their analgesia overall, significantly more of those receiving unsupplemented morphine (11/19 compared with 4/18, P <0.05) described it as excellent.
Conclusion: The addition of droperidol 10mg to morphine 60mg for PCA following caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia reduces the incidence of nausea and emesis, but may result in drowsiness, limiting the usefulness of the technique.     

Postoperative analgesia for Caesarean section using epidural methadone

A prospective randomised double blind study was carried out to compare the use of epidural methadone, morphine and bupivacaine for pain relief after Caesarean section. The results indicate that methadone is the most effective agent with few side effects. Subsequently this method was used routinely for postoperative analgesia in all patients undergoing Caesarean section. A retrospective study of 178 patients having this method of analgesia was carried out and indicated that epidural methadone is an effective and safe method of postoperative pain relief.     

An isobolographic analysis of diamorphine and levobupivacaine for epidural analgesia in early labour

Background: Few data describe the pharmacological interactions between localanaesthetics and opioids. The aim of this study was to measurethe median effective concentration (MEC) of diamorphine andlevobupivacaine when given separately and as mixtures for epiduralanalgesia, and determine whether the combination is additiveor synergistic. Methods: One hundred and twenty patients were enrolled in this prospectiverandomized, two-phase, double-blind study. In the first phase,60 women were randomized to receive a fixed 20 ml volumeof either levobupivacaine or diamorphine epidurally . Dosingwas determined using up-down sequential allocation with testingintervals, respectively, of 0.01%w/v and 12.5 µg ml^–1.After estimations of the MEC of levobupivacaine and diamorphine,a further 60 patients were randomized in the second phase toone of the three mixtures: (a) diamorphine 70 µg ml^–1(fixed) and levobupivacaine (testing interval 0.004%w/v, startingat 0.044%w/v); (b) levobupivacaine 0.044%w/v (fixed) and diamorphine(testing interval 7 µg ml^–1, startingat 70 µg ml^–1); and (c) bivariate diamorphineand levobupivacaine (testing intervals of 7 µg ml^–1and 0.004%w/v starting at 70 µg ml^–1 and0.044% w/v respectively). Results: The MEC estimates from the first phase were 143.8 µg ml^–1(95% CI 122.2–165.3) for diamorphine and 0.083%w/v (95%CI 0.071–0.095) for levobupivacaine. In the second phase,the MEC and interaction index () of the three combinations were:diamorphine 65.5 µg ml^–1 (56.8–74.2), = 0.99; levobupivacaine 0.041%w/v (0.037–0.049), = 0.98;and for the fixed combination diamorphine 69.5 µg ml^–1(60.5–78.5) and levobupivacaine 0.044%w/v (0.039–0.049), = 1.02. Conclusion: The combination of diamorphine and levobupivacaine is additiveand not synergistic when used for epidural analgesia in thefirst stage of labour.     

A double-blind comparison of epidural ketamine and diamorphine for postoperative analgesia

Twenty patients who had abdominal hysterectomy under general anaesthesia were randomly assigned to receive either epidural ketamine (30 mg), or epidural diamorphine (5 mg) peri-operatively and on first request for analgesia. Failure to obtain satisfactory analgesia with one of the agents was treated by epidural administration of the other. Pain was assessed by an independent observer, and by the patient using a visual analogue scale. The mean (SD) pain score on recovery from general anaesthesia, on a scale of 0-4, was 2.9 (1.2) for the ketamine group and 1.0 (1.0) for the diamorphine group (p less than 0.01). The mean (SD) time to first request for analgesia was 272 (206) and 72 (41) minutes in the diamorphine and ketamine groups respectively (p less than 0.01). All patients in the diamorphine group obtained adequate analgesia, but all patients in the ketamine group were changed to epidural diamorphine. Epidural ketamine does not appear to be a sufficiently effective alternative to epidural diamorphine for routine use in postoperative pain.     

Epidural infusion of bupivacaine and diamorphine for postoperative analgesia

An audit of postoperative epidural analgesia in a District General Hospital is presented. Three hundred and forty-eight patients received epidural infusions of a bupivacaine and diamorphine mixture, and were managed on general surgical wards using a standard protocol of observations and instructions. Good analgesia was achieved in 339 (97%) patients. Respiratory depression, defined as a respiratory rate of eight breaths.min-1 or less, occurred in 22 (6%) patients, was of gradual onset, and was simply and successfully managed without morbidity. There were no respiratory arrests. Other complications, and the significance of catheter insertion level are discussed.     

Choice of opioid for initiation of combined spinal epidural analgesia in labour--fentanyl or diamorphine

Sixty-two women requesting regional analgesia in labour wereallocated to receive a 1.5 ml intrathecal injection aspart of a combined spinal–epidural (CSE) analgesic technique.This contained either bupivacaine 2.5 mg plus fentanyl25 µg (group F) or bupivacaine 2.5 mg plus diamorphine250 µg (group D). Times of analgesic onset and offsetwere recorded, motor and proprioceptive assessments made andside-effects noted. Analgesic onset was not significantly differentbetween the groups (group F, 8.0 min; group D, 9.5 min; P=0.3)but time to first top-up request was significantly longer inthe diamorphine group (group F, 73 min; group D, 101 min; P=0.003).Motor loss, assessed by the modified Bromage score, was statisticallybut not clinically greater in the fentanyl group (P=0.01). Maternalhypotension, pruritis, proprioceptive loss, nausea and fetalbradycardia were rare and not severe, and their incidences didnot differ between groups. No respiratory depression was observedafter CSE. This use of diamorphine was not associated with increasedside-effects compared with fentanyl/bupivacaine, and it hasa longer duration of action. Br J Anaesth 2001; 86: 567–9     

Comparison of ropivacaine-fentanyl patient-controlled epidural analgesia with morphine intravenous patient-controlled analgesia for perioperative analgesia and recovery after open colon surgery

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To compare the effects of ropivacaine-fentanyl patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA) with morphine intravenous (IV) patient-controlled analgesia (PCA). DESIGN: Prospective, randomized, multicenter trial. SETTING: Five university-affiliated hospitals. PATIENTS: 41 patients undergoing colon surgery. INTERVENTION: Patients were randomized to receive either standardized combined epidural/general anesthesia followed by PCEA with ropivacaine 0.2% and fentanyl (2 microg/mL) or standardized general anesthesia followed by morphine IV PCA. All patients participated in a standardized postoperative clinical pathway. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Analgesia was assessed with visual analog scale (VAS) scores. Postoperative recovery was assessed by completion of prospectively defined discharge milestones and time until discharge. Statistical analyses included nonparametric and contingency table analyses. The PCEA group had better analgesia (> 50% reduction in pain scores, assessed both at rest and during a cough) for the first 3 days after surgery (p < 0.0,005). The PCEA group achieved discharge milestones approximately 36 hours faster (p < 0.002), but time until discharge was similar between groups. CONCLUSIONS: Ropivacaine-fentanyl PCEA provides superior analgesia, reduced opioid requirement, and more rapid recovery after colon surgery.     

Continuous epidural analgesia with bupivacaine-fentanyl versus patient-controlled analgesia with i.v. morphine for postoperative pain relief after knee ligament surgery

BACKGROUND: Both epidural analgesia and intravenous patient-controlled analgesia (PCA) have been found efficacious after various types of surgery. We compared the efficacy, safety, side effects and patient satisfaction of these methods in a randomized double-blind fashion after elective anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction of the knee. METHODS: Fifty-six patients had an epidural catheter placed at the L2-L3 interspace. Spinal anaesthesia with 15 mg of plain bupivacaine 5 mg/ml was performed at the L3-L4 interspace. After surgery the patients were randomly divided into three groups: 19 received a continuous epidural infusion with bupivacaine 1 mg/ml and fentanyl 10 mg/ml (F10), 19 patients received bupivacaine 1 mg/ml and fentanyl 5 microg/ml (F5) and 18 patients received saline (S). The rate of the epidural infusions was 0.1 ml kg(-1) h(-1). Each patient could also use an intravenous (i.v.) PCA device with 40 microg/kg bolus doses of morphine with a lockout period of 10 min and a maximum dose 240 microg kg(-1) h(-1). At the end of surgery ketoprofen 100 mg i.v. was given and continued orally three times a day. Patients were assessed for pain with a visual analogue scale (VAS) at rest and during activity, side effects and satisfaction at 3, 9 and 20 h. RESULTS: Both epidural infusions (F10, F5) provided better analgesia than epidural saline plus i.v. PCA (S) (P<0.05). There was slightly less nausea in the S group (NS). In spite of the difference in the quality of pain relief, there was no difference between the groups in patient satisfaction regarding analgesic therapy. CONCLUSION: Epidural infusion of fentanyl (1 microg kg(-1) h(-1) or 0.5 microg kg(-1) h(-1)) and bupivacaine (0.1 mg kg(-1) h(-1)) provided better pain relief but more side effects than intravenous morphine patient-controlled analgesia after knee ligament surgery. Almost all patients in all groups were satisfied with their pain relief.     

硬膜外吗啡持续注入用于小儿术后镇痛的研究

目的　评价硬膜外吗啡 5μg· kg- 1 · h- 1 复合 0 .12 5 %丁哌卡因持续注入对儿童术后镇痛的效果及安全性。方法　选 ASA ( ～ )级择期腹部或下肢手术的患儿 2 3例 ,行硬膜外复合全麻 ,术毕以 0 .12 5 %丁哌卡因及吗啡 5μg· kg- 1 · h- 1 按 0 .5 ml· h- 1 的速率硬膜外腔持续注入 ,观察镇痛效果及副作用 ,监测血压、心率、呼吸频率及脉搏氧饱和度。结果　术后无痛及轻微痛的患儿 2 2 /2 3(95 .6 5 % ) ,中度痛 1/ 2 3(4.35 % ) ,血压、心率、呼吸频率稳定 ,无明显呼吸抑制 ,恶心、呕吐发生率较低 (分别为 17.39%、8.70 % )。结论　吗啡 5μg· kg- 1 · h- 1 复合 0 .12 5 %丁哌卡因硬膜外持续注入是儿童较为安全有效的术后镇痛方法之一。     

Morphine compared with diamorphine

The dose requirements and side effects of morphine were compared with those of diamorphine administered by patient-controlled analgesia in 40 patients following elective total hip replacement. Patients were allocated randomly to receive in a double-blind manner either morphine or diamorphine for postoperative pain relief. There were no significant differences between the two groups with regard to postoperative sedation, nausea, well-being, pain relief and requirements for antiemetic drugs. The dose requirement for diamorphine was approximately 50% of that for morphine.     

Patient-controlled epidural analgesia versus continuous epidural analgesia after total knee arthroplasty

BACKGROUND: Patient-controlled epidural analgesia (PCEA) has been found to be an effective method for pain relief during labour and after surgery. The goal of this study was to compare the efficacy of bupivacaine-fentanyl PCEA and continuous epidural infusion with the same mixture for treatment of pain after total knee arthroplasty. METHODS: Fifty-four patients under spinal anaesthesia were allocated to two groups in this randomized, double-blind study: the PCEA group could demand a bolus of 0.05 ml/kg of the bupivacaine 1.1 mg/ml and fentanyl 5 microg/ml solution, with a lockout interval of 10 min and total dose limit of three bolus doses per hour. The EPI group received a continuous infusion of 0.1 ml kg(-1) h(-1) of the same bupivacaine-fentanyl solution, and only a minimal extra bolus dose of 0.2 ml with the same lockout interval. All the patients received also paracetamol 1 g, orally, three times a day. In addition to pain scores at rest and during leg lifting, the 20-h analgesic consumption and the incidence of side effects were recorded. RESULTS: Forty-nine patients completed the study. The bupivacaine and fentanyl consumption during 20 h was smaller in the PCEA group (P<0.001). Analgesia and the need for rescue-opioid medication were similar in both groups. There were no differences between the PCEA and EPI groups regarding the incidence of side effects. Five patients were confused about how to operate the PCEA apparatus. CONCLUSION: The amount of bupivacaine-fentanyl solution consumed was significantly less with PCEA than with continuous infusion of bupivacaine-fentanyl solution without affecting the quality of postoperative analgesia after total knee arthroplasty. Several of the elderly patients had difficulties in operating the PCEA apparatus.     

A comparison of epidural diamorphine with intramuscular papaveretum following caesarean section

Following caesarean section carried out under epidural blockade using local anaesthetic only, 40 consenting women were randomly allocated to receive either epidural diamorphine 2.5-5 mg in 10 ml physiological saline and intramuscular saline or epidural saline and intramuscular papaveretum 10-20 mg, dosage depending on weight, when the pain returned. When analgesia was next requested the alternative treatment was given. A visual analogue pain score was recorded before and 15, 30, 60, 120, 180 and 240 min after the first treatment. Respirations were counted and symptoms noted. On the following day the mother was asked whether she preferred the first or the second treatment. Both treatments produced a reduction in pain score but analgesia was significantly better with epidural diamorphine and the duration of action (8.5 +/- 5.2 h) was significantly longer than that following intramuscular papaveretum (4.1 +/- 2.3 h, P < 0.01). Two mothers who received epidural diamorphine initially required no further analgesia. No difference in respiratory rate was noted but side-effects were more frequent with epidural diamorphine. Despite this more women preferred this treatment. Because of enhanced mobility provided by good analgesia epidural diamorphine is worth offering to women following caesarean section.     

Effect of intrathecal diamorphine on block height during spinal anaesthesia for Caesarean section with bupivacaine

Background. Opioid analgesics are commonly added to intrathecalbupivacaine to improve patient comfort during Caesarean sectionunder spinal anaesthesia, and provide post-operative pain relief.We sought to discover if the addition of diamorphine influencedblock height when given with 0.5% w/v hyperbaric bupivacaine. Method. Eighty ASA I and II women of at least 37 weeks gestationand planned for elective Caesarean section under combined spinal–epiduralanaesthesia were recruited. They were randomized into two groupsto receive intrathecal hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5% at an initialdose of 13 mg, with the next dose determined by the responseof the previous patient (dose interval 1 mg). One group alsoreceived diamorphine 400 µg intrathecally. If a blockheight of T5 to blunt light touch had been achieved after 20min, the block was deemed effective. A difference in the ED₅₀for hyperbaric bupivacaine between the groups would indicatethat diamorphine influenced block height. Intraoperative patientdiscomfort and need for analgesic supplementation was noted. Results. The median effective dose (ED₅₀) to achieve a T5 blockto light touch for Caesarean section using hyperbaric bupivacaine0.5% was 9.95 mg [95% confidence interval (CI) 9.0–10.90]and with the addition of diamorphine it was 9.3 mg (95% CI 8.15–10.40),while the ED₉₅ was 13.55 mg (95% CI 10.10–17.0) and 13.6mg (95% CI 9.15–18.05), respectively. Five women who hadreceived intrathecal diamorphine and 13 who had not receiveddiamorphine needed intraoperative supplementation (not significant). Conclusion. The addition of intrathecal diamorphine does notappear to influence block height.     

High-dose intrathecal diamorphine for analgesia after Caesarean section

Forty women undergoing elective Caesarean section under spinal anaesthesia using hyperbaric 0.5% bupivacaine were randomly allocated to receive either 0.5 mg or 1 mg intrathecal diamorphine. All women received diclofenac 100 mg at the end of surgery and morphine via a patient-controlled analgesia system. Oral analgesics were not used. Postoperative analgesia was more prolonged and more reliable in the 1-mg group. Mean time to first analgesia was 10.2 h in the 1-mg group and 6.9 h in the 0.5-mg group, and 45% in the 1-mg group used no morphine, compared with 10% in the 0.5-mg group. Mean morphine consumption over 24 h was 5.2 mg in the 1-mg group and 10.6 mg in the 0.5-mg group. Pain scores all tended to be lower in the 1-mg group but this was only significant at 4 h. There were no serious side-effects. Minor side-effects were common but well tolerated, and the incidence did not differ between the groups. If intrathecal diamorphine is used in combination with rectal diclofenac and without oral analgesia, then 1 mg provides superior analgesia to 0.5 mg without any worsening of the side-effects.     

Ventilatory effects of epidural clonidine during the first 3 hours after caesarean section

Many authors have shown the analgesic efficacy of 150-800 micrograms of epidural clonidine in the postoperative period. Its use as an analgesic after caesarean section has recently been studied with higher dosages (400-800 micrograms). Our study aimed at assessing the analgesic and ventilatory effects of two smaller doses of epidural clonidine (150 and 300 micrograms), which were compared to the effects of 10 mg of parenteral morphine (M) during the first 3 h after caesarean section. The duration of the analgesic effect was longest with 150 micrograms of epidural clonidine. Arterial blood pressure decreased from 30 min after the injection to the end of the study in both epidural clonidine groups. A marked sedation was observed in patients receiving 300 micrograms of epidural clonidine and was frequently associated with snoring, obstructive apnoea and episodes of arterial oxygen desaturation. We conclude that 150 micrograms of epidural clonidine provides better and longer analgesia after caesarean section than 10 mg of parenteral morphine, and seems preferable to higher doses (300 micrograms) in this setting, since 300 micrograms of epidural clonidine may produce unacceptable respiratory obstructive disturbances.     

经耻骨上前列腺切除术后罗哌卡因混合芬太尼病人自控硬膜外镇痛的效果

目的观察不同浓度罗哌卡因混合芬太尼病人自控硬膜外镇痛（PCEA）用于经耻骨上前列腺切除术（SPP）后的效果。方法SPP病人36例，ASAⅡ或Ⅲ级，随机分为3组：0．12％罗哌卡因混合芬太尼PCEA组（RL组）、0．2％罗哌卡因混合芬太尼PCEA组（RH组）和吗啡病人自控静脉镇痛（PCIA）组（M组），每组12例。记录术后第6、24、48和72小时（T6、L、k和k）运动神经阻滞程度评分（Bromage评分）；记录术后即刻～＜6h、术后6～＜24h、术后24～＜48h和术后48～72h时段膀胱痉挛次数；采用视觉模拟评分法（VAS）记录病人膀胱痉挛时和非痉挛时疼痛程度；记录有关的副作用及术后72h膀胱冲洗液内红细胞的总数。结果1．L时Bromage评分RL组和RH组高于M组（P＜0．05或0．01），L。时RH组高于RL组和M组（P＜0．01），RL组与M组之间差异无统计学意义。2．膀胱痉挛次数在术后6h内三组差异无统计学意义，术后6～72h，RL组和RH组低于M组（P＜0．05），其中术后6～＜24hRH组少于于RL组（P＜0．05），术后24～＜72h，RH组和RL组之间差异无统计学意义。3．在膀胱痉挛时，VAS评分RH组和RL组低于M组（P＜0．05），H组与RL组差异无统计学意义；在非膀胱痉挛时，三组之间差异无统计学意义。4．RL组和RH组术后72h膀胱冲洗液内红细胞总数低于M组（P＜0．01），RL组与RH组差异无统计学意义。结论与吗啡PCIA相比，SPP后使用0．12％或0．2％的罗哌卡因混合芬太尼进行PCEA，能更有效地减少膀胱痉挛，减少前列腺窝创面的出血量。SPP后不同时段采用不同浓度的罗哌卡因混合芬太尼进行PCEA，效果更好。     

帕瑞昔布对剖宫产术后病人不同剂量吗啡硬膜外镇痛效果的影响

目的 评价帕瑞昔布对剖宫产术后病人不同剂量吗啡硬膜外镇痛效果的影响.方法 择期行剖宫产手术的病人300例,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,年龄20～40岁,体重54 ～ 89 kg,采用随机数字表法,将其随机分为6组(n＝50):帕瑞昔布联合常规剂量吗啡PCEA组(P1组)、帕瑞昔布联合中剂量吗啡PCEA组(P2组)、帕瑞昔布联合小剂量吗啡PCEA组(P3组),3组各设置生理盐水联合吗啡PCEA对照组(C1组、C2组和C3组).于手术结束时P1组、P2组和P3组静脉注射帕瑞昔布40 ng,C1组、C2组和C3组给予等容量生理盐水.6组术后行吗啡PCEA,C1组和P1组:负荷量为吗啡2.0mg,镇痛泵药物为吗啡3.0 mg;C2组和P2组:负荷量为吗啡1.5mg,镇痛泵药物为吗啡2.0 mg;C3组和P3组:负荷量为吗啡1.0 mg,镇痛泵药物为吗啡1.5 mg;负荷量中均加入0.15％罗哌卡因8ml,所有镇痛泵中药物均加入罗哌卡因150 mg、格拉司琼3 mg和地塞米松5 mg,用生理盐水稀释至100 ml,背景输注速率2 ml/h,PCA量0.5ml,锁定时间15 min.分别记录术毕～术后24h期间静息状态及活动状态时镇痛有效情况,记录恶心呕吐、皮肤瘙痒、呼吸抑制、低血压和嗜睡等不良反应的发生情况.结果 与C1组或G2组比较,P1组或P2组术后活动状态和静息状态镇痛有效率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05);与C3组比较,P3组活动状态镇痛有效率升高(P<0.01),静息状态镇痛有效率差异无统计学意义(P＞0.05).与P1组和P2组比较,P3组恶心呕吐程度和皮肤瘙痒发生率降低(P<0.01),无一例病人发生呼吸抑制、低血压和嗜睡.结论 静脉注射帕瑞昔布40 mg可增强剖宫产术后小剂量吗啡硬膜外镇痛的效果,而对中等剂量或常规剂量吗啡硬膜外镇痛效果无影响.