ENDOSCOPIC RETROGRADE CHOLANGIOPANCREATOGRAPHY FOLLOWING LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the preferred method of treatment for symptomatic choledocholithiasis. Since its introduction there has been an increase in postoperative diagnostic and therapeutic endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). The aim of this study was to assess the indications and results of ERCP following laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Sixty-one patients had an ERCP following laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Two broad groups were identified: Group 1 (35 patients) had filling defects (consistent with stones) noted on operative cholangiography, which were not successfully flushed or extracted at the time of laparoscopic cholecystectomy; Group 2 consisted of patients who developed problems following laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Nine patients had post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy pain with abnormal liver function tests (LFT), four of whom had common bile duct (CBD) injuries and three had CBD stones. Eleven patients had post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy pain with a normal diameter common bile duct on ultrasound and normal LFT; only one had a CBD stone. Five patients with a persisting bile leak following laparoscopic cholecystectomy had an ERCP and endoscopic sphincterotomy. In three the leak ceased, while two required subsequent open surgery to drain bile collections and ligate the cystic duct. One patient presented with an episode of transient jaundice but had a normal ERCP. There were six post-ERCP complications; three patients had mild pancreatitis, two had a minor haemorrhage and one an asymptomatic duodenal perforation. Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy was most valuable for the management of retained stones and the diagnosis and management of post-laparoscopic cholecystectomy pain in association with abnormal LFT. The diagnostic yield was low (9%) when the LFT were normal.     

THE ROLE OF ERCP AND ENDOSCOPIC SPHINCTEROTOMY IN THE ERA OF LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

The advent of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has led to some controversy regarding the best method of managing bile duct calculi. This paper reviews the cases of 38 patients who underwent LC and endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP), from a series of 600 consecutive laparoscopic cholecystectomies. Twenty-nine patients had ERCP performed pre-operatively because of suspicion of choledocholithiasis. Duct stones were confirmed in eight patients. Recent or current jaundice was the best predictor of bile duct stones. Nine patients had ERCP done postoperatively because of duct stones seen on operative cholangiography. In two patients bile duct cannulation was not possible and a third procedure, open duct exploration, was necessary. Techniques in laparoscopic management of duct stones are improving and the role of ERCP and sphinc-terotomy should be limited to jaundiced patients or those with proven bile duct stones in whom laparoscopic procedures have been unsuccessful.     

LEFT LATERAL LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY AND ITS RELEVANCE TO CHOLEDOCHOLITHIASIS

One of the current challenges to the laparoscopic biliary surgeon is the management of bile duct stones. While laparoscopic bile duct exploration is in its infancy, pre- and postoperative endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography with or without endoscopic papillotomy (ERCPEP) currently plays a significant role. Intra-operative ERCPEP has advantages over pre- and postoperative ERCPEP; however it has not gained popularity due, partly, to the difficulties associated with ERCPEP being performed with the patient in the supine position. This study prospectively assessed, in 10 consecutive patients, the feasibility of performing laparompic cholecystectomies in the left lateral position, a position amenable to intra-operative ERCPEP if necessary. It is concluded that laparoscopic cholecystectomy in the left lateral position can be performed safely, with similar ease and results as in the supine position, increasing the options available to manage choledocholithiasis.     

THE MORBIDITY OF SURGICAL ACCESS: A STUDY OF OPEN VERSUS LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

A prospective non-randomized study of 37 adult patients undergoing open cholecystectomy and 40 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy was undertaken to test the hypothesis that surgical access alone has a significant impact on postoperative morbidity. Specifically the study examined the deterioration of pulmonary function, development of pulmonary complications, postoperative narcotic requirement and total bed stay as markers of postoperative morbidity. The results showed that significantly less deterioration of pulmonary function occurred in patients treated using the laparoscopic approach. In this group there was also significantly less requirement for postoperative narcotics, less consequent development of pulmonary complications and a shorter bed stay in hospital. The study documents the substantial impact of surgical access on postoperative morbidity and highlights the benefits of the laparoscopic ‘minimal access’ approach.     

PERCUTANEOUS LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY: INDICATIONS,CONTRAINDICATIONS AND COMPLICATIONS

The indications, contraindications and complications of percutaneous laparoscopic cholecystectomy (PLC) were established from a group of 308 patients referred for cholecystectomy. Of the 308 patients 86% underwent PLC, 5% were commenced laparoscopically, but converted to open cholecystectomy and 9% were performed as open cholecystectomy from the outset. Complications included two bile leaks from the gall-bladder bed, one cystic duct stump leak and three retained stones. Pre-operative rather than intra-operative duct imaging was used so that common duct stones could be removed before operation. PLC is a safe procedure that has now become the standard technique for cholecystectomy.     

CHANGES IN THE PRACTICE OF BILIARY SURGERY AND ERCP DURING THE INTRODUCTION OF LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY TO AUSTRALIA: THEIR POSSIBLE SIGNIFICANCE

Two and a half years after the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy to Australia in February 1990, estimates from Medicare statistics suggest that by July 1992, 69% of cholecystectomies were being performed laparoscopically. There was a smaller decline in the numbers of open cholecystectomies performed. suggesting a 28% rise in the rate of cholecystectomy. This has been associated with a 66% decline in the use of intra-operative cholangiography. Whereas 87% of cholecystectomies had an operative cholangiogram performed, now only 23% of all cholecystectomies do. It is suggested that in approximately half the patients, no attempt is made to exclude common duct stones. With those patients in whom an attempt is made, most surgeons rely on endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography, as evidenced by a 43% increase in its use, or, more recently, a small proportion of surgeons have been using intravenous cholangiography, as evidenced by a 26% increase in its use. Once diagnosed, these stones are no longer being treated by open exploration of the bile duct, indicated by a 46% decrease in this procedure, but are being treated by endoscopic sphincterotomy, which has shown a 242% increase in its use. From the published results of the outcome of these treatments, the added risk, nationally, of these additional procedures in managing uncomplicated bile duct stones is predicted to increase mortality 1–3-fold and morbidity 10–15-fold. This risk can be reduced by the use of laparoscopic bile duct exploration. These techniques are already well established and can be learnt quickly if practice is achieved by performing routine intra-operative cholangiography. The treatment of common duct calculi at the time of cholecystectomy still seems to be the most efficient strategy of management, even in the laparoscopic era.     

LAPAROSCOPIC MANAGEMENT OF COMPLICATIONS FOLLOWING LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has rapidly become the treatment of choice for symptomatic cholelithiasis. Although published morbidity and mortality rates compare favourably with open cholecystectomy, bile duct injuries occur far more frequently and technical complications unique to the laparoscopic approach account for a significant number of postoperative deaths. The majority of these complications are dealt with by laparotomy. Two technical complications encountered in a series of 170 patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy and their subsequent management are presented. One patient suffered a diathermy injury to the common hepatic duct and postoperative bile leak. This was managed successfully by repeat laparoscopy and peritoneal lavage combined with endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) and stenting of the hepatic duct. Another patient sustained a perforated duodenum complicated by peritonitis, subcutaneous wound infection and generalized sepsis. The perforation was repaired at a second laparoscopy using intracorporeal suturing and Tissucol. It is demonstrated that it is possible to deal with some of the technical complications of laparoscopic cholecystectomy with a combination of minimally invasive techniques, sparing the patient from the additional risk of laparotomy.     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术后胆漏的处理

目的探讨腹腔镜胆囊切除术（Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy,LC）术后胆漏的各种处理方式。方法回顾性分析我院2000年2月-2005年5月施行的LC3868例。结果术后发生胆漏22例,胆漏发生率为0.56%。所有胆漏患者经保守治疗、再次腹腔镜探查置管、内镜治疗和腹腔引流管充分引流后造影拔管治疗。结论非主胆道损伤所引起的胆漏多可经非开腹手术治疗而治愈。     

ERCP术后LC的手术时机探讨

目的 探讨经内镜逆行性胰胆管造影术（ERCP）联合腹腔镜胆囊切除术（LC）治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石的最佳手术时间间隔.方法 回顾性分析我院自2010年1月至2014年4月56例胆囊结石合并胆总管结石患者,均顺利完成ERCP＋LC的序贯治疗.ERCP术后,其中28例2～4d后行LC（A组）,28例5～14 d后行LC（B组）.对两组患者的LC术前血淀粉酶水平、LC手术时间、术后肛门排气时间、术后并发症、总住院时间及总住院费用进行比较分析.结果 A组总住院时间和总住院费用均低于B组（t=--5.970,P＜0.05; t=-4.304,P＜ 0.05）.LC术前血淀粉酶水平、手术时间、术后肛门排气时间、术后并发症和住院时间在两组之间比较均无明显差异（P＞ 0.05）.结论 ERCP与LC的最佳时间间隔可能是2～4d.     

LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY INITIAL EXPERIENCE

Twenty-five consecutive patients underwent percutaneous laparoscopic cholecystectomy (PCC). The gallbladder was removed successfully in 18 patients. The mean postoperative hospital stay was 1.4 days and patients returned to normal activity at a mean 8 days after operation. Postoperative pain was minimal. Formal laparotomy was performed in 7 patients due to: bleeding (3 patients), stone spillage (3 patients) and exploration of the common bile duct (1 patient). Complications were reduced with experience and strict adherence to the described operative technique. With obvious advantages for the patient, hospitals and the community an increased demand for PCC is inevitable. However, its role in the management of cholelithiasis and overall safety have yet to be determined. There is a significant learning curve and proper training is necessary. The widespread introduction of PCC has immediate implications for surgical training.     

A PROSPECTIVE AUDIT OF SELECTIVE CHOLANGIOGRAPHY FOR LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

Background: With the introduction of laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) there has been a reduction in the use of operative cholangiography. The practice of selective cholangiography (SC), where the common bile duct (CBD) is imaged only in those patients where the surgeon believes there is a significant risk of CBD stones has contributed to this reduction. Selective cholangiography has been criticized by advocates of routine cholangiography who argue that there will be more CBD stones missed and more CBD injuries. Methods: This prospective study reports the outcome in a series of 457 patients who had LC performed between 1990 and 1992 where cholangiography was used according to a strict protocol relying on clinical history, CBD size and pre-operative liver function tests. There were no CBD injuries. Twenty-nine patients (6.4%) had CBD stones. Results: Follow up by structured questionnaire at 12–24 months detected 6 patients (1.3%) with CBD stones. Three of these 6 patients had cholangiograms. Of the 3 patients with missed stones and no X-ray, 2 were protocol breaches and only I patient from 307 (0.3%) with no indication for SC was subsequently found to have a CBD stone. Conclusion: We believe that this study validates a policy of SC.     

COMMON BILE DUCT CALCULI AT LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY: A TECHNIQUE FOR MANAGEMENT

Laparoscopic cholecystectomy was attempted in 150 unselected patients. The use of routine intra-operative cholangiography prevented serious bile duct injury in one patient. It also showed 75% of patients suspected pre-operatively of having common duct stones, had passed them by the time of cholecystectomy. Eight of 12 diagnosed duct stones (5 suspected, 7 unsuspected) were removed laparoscopically. A technique is described using inexpensive and readily available equipment that allows the transcystic duct treatment of the majority of common duct stones. The development and use of such techniques to laparoscopically treat duct stones will once more allow surgeons to treat all biliary calculi at the one procedure and reduce unnecessary dependence on endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography/sphincterotomy.     

TECHNIQUE AND RESULTS OF LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLEDOCHOTOMY FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF BILE DUCT CALCULI

Laparoscopic choledochotomy has been performed in 50 patients to remove common bile duct calculi demonstrated on routine operative cholangiography at the time of laparoscopic cholecystectomy. The patients ranged from 16 to 91 years old. One patient died, giving a mortality of 2%. At postoperative T-tube cholangiography, retained stones were demonstrated in three patients (6%) with all stones being removed using a choledochoscope via the T-tube track. Laparoscopic common bile duct exploration via a choledochotomy is a feasible and effective method to manage common bile duct calculi demonstrated during laparoscopic cholecystectomy.     

CARBON DIOXIDE,TEMPERATURE AND LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

Laparoscopic procedures have previously been shown to interfere little with respiratory homeostasis. This study was designed to determine whether respiratory homeostasis, as well as temperature, is maintained with longer laparoscopic procedures and cold carbon dioxide insufflation. This study examined 21 American Society of Anesthesiologists status I and II patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. A constant minute ventilation (80mL/kg per min) was instituted prior to peritoneal insufflation and end-tidal carbon dioxide measurements were followed throughout the procedure. Although they showed a small statistically significant increase (32.3 ± 3.8 to 38.9 ± 6.0 mmHg, P= 0.0001) they were not of clinical significance. Similarly, rectal temperature measurements showed a statistically. but not clinically, significant fall in temperature over the course of the procedures (36.4 ± 0.46 to 36.2 ± 0.35°C, P = 0.0001). The changes in end-tidal carbon dioxide and temperature showed no correlation with the volume of carbon dioxide used. The above findings will, however, require further investigation in both longer procedures and patients with more significant disease.     

ERCP在腹腔镜胆囊切除围手术期的应用

目的 探讨内交易ＥＲＣＰ在腹腔镜胆囊切除围手术期的应用价值。方法 从１９９８年１月至１９９９年４月在１５００例ＬＣ病人中,有选择地进行术前３３例和术后２０例的ＥＲＣＰ及内镜治疗,包括ＥＳＴ,ＥＮＢＤ和网篮取石术。其指征为：近期有为发生或黄我,肝功能异常,碱性磷酸酶升高,Ｂ超或ＣＴ示胆总管扩张或有结石,术中造影有胆管结石,术后有临床症状。结果 在术前３３例ＥＲＣＰ中,除１例失败外,胆囊病变外的阳性发     

两种微创手术治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石的临床效果比较

目的探讨两种不同微创手术方式治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石的临床效果。方法胆囊结石合并胆总管结石患者83例,其中采用腹腔镜胆囊切除术(laparoscopic cholecystectomy,LC)联合腹腔镜胆总管探查术(laparoscopic common bile duct exploration,LCBDE)(LC+LCBDE组)治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石的患者46例,内镜下逆行胰胆管造影(endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography,ERCP)及乳头括约肌切开取石术(endoscopic sphincterotomy,EST)ERCP/EST+LC(ERCP/EST+LC组)治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石的患者37例,比较两组患者的临床治疗情况,包括手术成功率,中转开腹率,术后并发症的发生率,近期结石复发率,住院费用及时间等。结果两组患者的手术成功率(93.5%vs 89.2%),中转开腹率(6.5%vs 5.4%),术后并发症的发生率(8.7%vs 8.1%),近期结石复发率比较(5.2%vs 7.4%),差异均无统计学意义(P0.05),手术时间,住院时间及治疗费用等比较差异有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论 LC联合LCBDE与LC联合ERCP/EST对于治疗胆囊结石合并胆总管结石同样有效,LC联合ERCP/EST可缩短手术时间,但在住院时间及治疗费用方面不如LC联合LCBDE,两种微创方式都有其各自的适应证,应根据患者情况制定个体化的治疗方案。     

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography management of common bile duct stones in a surgical unit

BACKGROUND: Choledocholithiasis, if left untreated, can lead to significant morbidity and mortality. The management of such a problem has progressed tremendously but controversy still exists as to ideal management, laparoscopic exploration or endoscopic retrograde pancreatography with sphincterotomy. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the results of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) in a surgical unit. METHODS: We performed a retrospective review on 336 patients who underwent ERCP between 1997-2000. RESULTS: We achieved a successful cannulation rate of 98% and stone clearance rate exceeding 90%. Morbidity has been minimal and there was no mortality in our study. CONCLUSION: We conclude that ERCP is an effective and safe surgical alternative for the management of choledocholithiasis.     

AUDIT OF OUTPATIENT LAPAROSCOPIC CHOLECYSTECTOMY

Background : Because the postoperative stay after laparoscopic cholecystectomy (LC) has shortened, it seemed that outpatient LC would be feasible. The aim of this study was to prospectively audit initial experience with outpatient LC at the Austin and Repatriation Medical Centre. We aimed to determine appropriate patient selection criteria, to devise anaesthetic and discharge protocols and to assess patient satisfaction at follow up. Method s: All patients presenting for LC were assessed for suitability, and those elective cases unlikely to have a duct stone and fulfilling the social criteria were studied. After standard anaesthetic and LC technique, patients recovered in the day surgery unit for up to 8 h and were discharged if stable. The hospital in the home nursing service monitored patients for 48 h and arranged readmission if needed. Patient satisfaction was assessed by independent telephone questionnaire 6 weeks postoperatively. Results : Forty‐five patients (median age 43 years) underwent outpatient LC with a discharge rate of 82.3%, resulting in a cost saving of $984 per patient treated. One patient was readmitted, giving an overall success rate of 80%. After stricter implementation of the protocol in the second half of the study, the discharge rate rose to 92%. Patient acceptance of the technique was high at 84.5%. Conclusions : The results of the first 45 patients show that it is possible to safely perform outpatient LC with a low admission rate in fit, elective patients who live close to medical care. Provided a strict anaesthetic protocol is followed, the technique has good patient acceptance and provides some economic benefit to the hospital.     

腹腔镜胆囊切除术的并发症及处理

目的 探讨腹腔镜胆囊切除术并发症发生的原因及预防处理。方法 回顾分析我院1991年3月至2003年11月行LC的13278例病人的临床资料,对术中、术后并发症的发生原因进行分析。结果 发生并发症110例,发生率为0.83％。其中胆管损伤19例(0.14％),胆漏37例(0.28％),胆总管残余结石31例(0.23％),腹腔出血4例(0.03％),胃肠道损伤5例(0.04％),腹腔内脓肿3例(0.02％),切口感染及切口疝6例(0.05％),严重皮下气肿5例(0.04％)。死亡4例(0.03％)。结论 胆管损伤、胆漏和胆总管残余结石是LC的主要并发症,绝大部分并发症是能够预防和治愈的。