Youth exposed to violence: the role of protective factors

Using a sample of 174 inner‐city urban high school students, this study examined the degree to which family and peer support would moderate the negative impact of exposure to violence on academic performance, symptoms of distress, and persistence intentions. Over 94% of the students reported having been exposed to at least one form of community violence at some point in their lives. Using hierarchical linear regression, the results indicated that family support provided a protective‐stabilizing moderating effect between exposure to violence and symptoms of distress. Peer support was found to have a protective‐stabilizing moderating effect between exposure to violence and persistence intentions. Although exposure to violence and persistence intentions were both related to grade point average, family and peer support were not found to moderate the impact of violence exposure and grades. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Going for the Goal: Improving youths' problem‐solving skills through a school‐based intervention

This study evaluated Going for the Goal (GOAL), a school‐based intervention designed by Danish and colleagues to teach life skills to at‐risk urban adolescents. We extended previous evaluation of GOAL by including an assessment of means‐ends problem‐solving skills. The 10‐week program was administered to 479 middle school students by 46 trained high school student leaders in a predominantly Hispanic community. The program focused on setting positive, reachable goals; anticipating and responding to barriers to goal attainment; using social support; and building on one's strengths. Results demonstrated gains in knowledge of the skills being taught and improvement in problem‐solving skills. Leaders also showed an increase in their knowledge of life skills. The approach maximizes both community resources and ecological validity while giving high school leaders the chance to benefit in their role as helpers. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The short‐term impact of a problem‐solving skills programme for Iranian parents

Background: The ability of children to solve problems is an important influence on the social‐cognitive development of children. Parents and children who use problem‐solving strategies display more positive parent‐child relationships. It follows that parents will be more effective in promoting the children's development and healthy parent‐child relationships if they are skilled in problem‐solving strategies and encourage their children to use these strategies. Aim: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the short‐term efficacy of a problem‐solving skills program for Iranian parents (the ‘Raising a Thinking Child’ program) on the parent‐child relationship. Materials and method: Sixty‐four mothers of 4–8 year‐old children participated voluntarily in 12 2‐hour weekly workshops over a three month period. Parents were taught a procedure for problem‐solving and provided with the opportunity to consider how the procedure could be applied in response to challenging behaviors of their children. The problem‐solving strategies were taught as an alternative to ineffective approaches such as punishing and reprimanding. Results: Results indicated that teaching problem‐solving skills to parents had a positive influence on a number of dimensions of parenting as measured by the Parent Child Relationship Inventory. Conclusion: Parents who attended the program felt more supported, more involved with their children and better able to balance limit setting and child autonomy.     

Efficient assessment of social problem‐solving abilities in medical and rehabilitation settings: a rasch analysis of the social problem‐solving inventory‐revised

The Social Problem Solving Inventory‐Revised Scale (SPSI‐R) has been shown to be a reliable and valid self‐report measure of social problem‐solving abilities. In busy medical and rehabilitation settings, a brief and efficient screening version with psychometric properties similar to the SPSI‐R would have numerous benefits including decreased patient and caregiver assessment burden and administration/scoring time. Thus, the aim of the current study was to identify items from the SPSI‐R that would provide for a more efficient assessment of global social problem‐solving abilities. This study consisted of three independent samples: 121 persons in low‐vision rehabilitation (M age=71 years old, SD=15.53), 301 persons living with diabetes mellitus (M age=58, and SD=14.85), and 131 family caregivers of persons with severe disabilities (M age=56 years old, SD=12.15). All persons completed a version of the SPSI‐R, Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES‐D), and the Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS). Using Rasch scaling of the SPSI‐R short‐form, we identified a subset of 10 items that reflected the five‐component model of social problem solving. The 10 items were separately validated on the sample of persons living with diabetes mellitus and the sample of family caregivers of persons with severe disabilities. Results indicate that the efficient 10‐item version, analyzed separately for all three samples, demonstrated good reliability and validity characteristics similar to the established SPSI‐R short form. The 10‐item version of the SPSI‐R represents a brief, effective way in which clinicians and researchers in busy health care settings can quickly assess global problem‐solving abilities and identify those persons at‐risk for complicated adjustment. Implications for the assessment of social problem‐solving abilities are discussed. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol 65: 1–15, 2009.     

Altruism as a buffer for antisocial behavior for African American adolescents exposed to community violence

Altruistic prosocial behavior during adolescence is consistently associated with a myriad of positive outcomes including fewer risk‐taking behaviors and greater positive affect. Although limited, some literature suggests altruism may be an important protective factor in attenuating the effects of stressful life events such as exposure to community violence. Unfortunately, work examining altruism in African American adolescents is quite limited. The study examined the moderating role of altruism on relationships between exposure to violence and antisocial behavior in a sample of African American adolescents (136 females, 71 males). Participant's age ranged from 13 to 18. Results indicated that boys and girls engaged in similar levels of altruistic behaviors, but these behaviors were especially important in moderating the effects of community violence on antisocial behaviors for boys. The findings suggest that encouraging altruistic behaviors in boys may be critical in improving outcomes for adolescent males developing in violent ecologies.     

Exposure to community violence and violence perpetration: the protective effects of family functioning.

Although research has found that urban youth are exposed to excessive levels of community violence, few studies have focused on the factors that alter the risk of exposure to violence or the processes through which youth who are exposed to community violence do better or worse. This study investigates the risk of exposure to community violence and its relation to violence perpetration among a sample of 263 African American and Latino male youth living in inner-city neighborhoods. The study also examines the role that family functioning plays in moderating the risk. The study finds that youth from struggling families--those that consistently used poor parenting practices and had low levels of emotional cohesion--were more likely to be exposed to community violence. It also finds a relation between exposure to violence and later violence perpetration. However, youth exposed to high levels of community violence but living in families that functioned well across multiple dimensions of parenting and family relationship characteristics perpetrated less violence than similarly exposed youth from less well-functioning families.     

Relation between witnessing violence and drug use initiation among rural adolescents: parental monitoring and family support as protective factors.

This study examined the relation between witnessing violence and drug use initiation among 6th graders attending middle schools in 5 rural counties and investigated the extent to which family support and parental monitoring moderated this relation. Data were obtained from 1,282 adolescents at 2 time points during the 6th grade. Witnessing violence predicted subsequent initiation of cigarette, beer and wine, liquor, and advanced alcohol use. Adolescents who reported high levels of family support and parental monitoring were less likely to initiate use across all drug categories except beer and wine. High levels of parental monitoring and family support were effective in buffering the relation between witnessing violence and initiation of cigarette and advanced alcohol use at low levels of witnessing violence. With increasing levels of witnessing violence, however, the protective effects of monitoring and support were substantially diminished. These findings have important implications for research and intervention efforts.     

Long maternal separation has protective effects in rats exposed to activity‐based anorexia

This study examined the effect of three neonatal treatments of maternal separation during infancy in young adult rats exposed to standard activity‐based anorexia (ABA) consisting of food restriction plus free access to an activity wheel. During the first 20 postnatal days of life rat pups were exposed to periods of either brief maternal separation (BMS, 15 min), long maternal separation (LMS, 180 min), or were non‐handled (NH). Thereafter, male and female rats were exposed to ABA. Neonatal treatment produced no significant differences in the survival time of male rats, whereas survival was greater in female rats exposed to LMS than in NH rats under ABA procedure. In conclusion, prolonged maternal separation appears to promote resistance in female animals subjected to harsh ABA life‐threatening conditions. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Dev Psychobiol 51: 616–624, 2009     

Exposure to violence against a family member and internalizing symptoms in Colombian adolescents: the protective effects of family support.

Associations between exposure to serious violence against a family member and internalizing symptoms, and the protective effects of support from family versus friends, were examined in 5,775 adolescents (50% female; mean age = 15.2 years, SD = 2.0) with data from a national, random household survey of residents in Colombia, South America. After accounting for the effects of age, gender, and family life events other than violence, support from family buffered the relations between exposure to violence and adjustment; this relation was strongest for girls and younger adolescents. Disclosure to friends appeared to be protective for younger adolescents but harmful for older adolescents, and this relation was only observed for hopelessness. Results are discussed in terms of cognitive processing models of adjustment to violence.     

Brief problem‐solving training for family caregivers of persons with recent‐onset spinal cord injuries: a randomized controlled trial

Our objective was to examine the effectiveness of a brief individualized problem‐solving intervention for family with caregivers of persons with recent‐onset spinal cord injury (SCI). Family caregivers were randomly assigned to a usual care control group (N=30) or an intervention group (N=30) in which participants were to receive three face‐to‐face problem‐solving training sessions (PST), educational materials, and telephone contacts as requested over the first year of caregiving. The participants included 60 caregivers (49 women, 11 men). The Social Problem‐Solving Inventory‐Revised, the Inventory to Diagnose Depression, and the SF‐36 were administered at baseline, 6 months and 12 months. Caregivers in the intervention group reported a significant decrease in dysfunctional problem‐solving styles scores over time; there were no observable effects for PST on caregiver depression. There was also some indication that the intervention had beneficial effects on caregiver social and physical functioning. An intervention for new caregivers featuring brief PST, education, and contact may be associated with lower dysfunctional problem‐solving styles over time and may promote certain aspects of caregiver quality of life. We also discuss limitations and implications of the present study. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol 65: 1–17, 2009.     

Family and community characteristics: Risk factors for violence exposure in inner‐city youth

Although research has found that urban youth experience excessive levels of community violence, few studies have focused on the factors that alter the risk of exposure to violence. The current study investigates the relation between neighborhood and violence exposure and between family functioning and risk for exposure to violence in different types of poor, urban neighborhoods. Participants were 249 inner‐city African American and Latino males ages 13–17 and their primary caregivers who participated in the Chicago Youth Development Study. The interaction between family functioning and neighborhood type accounted for increased exposure to violence. The greatest increases occurred among struggling families residing in inner‐city neighborhoods with high levels of social organization. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Children's experience of life stress: The role of family social support and social problem-solving skills as protective factors

Examined the role of family social support and social problem-solving skills in moderating the effects of children's stressful life events on behavioral adjustment. Participants were 322 fourth and fifth graders who reported on their stressful experiences during the past year. Children from both regular education (RE) or special education (SE) classrooms were included in the sample. Additional self-report data from children also included measures related to perceived level of family social support, a personality questionnaire, and a social problem-solving measure. In addition, teachers provided reports of the children's behavior and adjustment. Main effects were found for total stress, school/peer stress, family social support, and social problem solving. Significant moderator effects were found for family support on total stress for the teacher-reported internalizing problems of RE students and for family support on school/peer stress on the teacher-reported externalizing problems and self-reported anxiety problems of SE students. Specific, theory-generated hypotheses are discussed as a more effective method of examining relations between stress and various moderator variables.     

Community‐level effects of individual and peer risk and protective factors on adolescent substance use

The association between community‐aggregated levels of individual and peer risk and protective factors and prevalence of adolescent substance use was examined in repeated cross‐sectional data among youth in 41 communities ranging in population from 1,578 to 106,221. The association between community levels of these risk and protective factors in 2000 and substance use 2 years later was examined by using within‐cohort analyses (e.g., sixth grade in 2000 predicting eighth grade in 2002) and cross‐cohort analyses (e.g., sixth grade in 2000 predicting sixth grade in 2002). In both within‐cohort and across‐cohort analyses, community‐aggregated levels of peer and individual risk and protective factors predicted adolescent substance use 2 years later, suggesting that focusing on elevated peer and individual risk factors and depressed peer and individual protective factors at the community level to guide the selection of preventive interventions may be a viable strategy for community efforts to prevent adolescent substance use. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The need for control,safety and trust in healthcare: A qualitative study among adolescents and young adults exposed to family violence

ObjectiveAdolescents and young adults (AYA) exposed to family violence are in need of professional healthcare. However, only one-third of them seek professional help.MethodsThis study investigates healthcare needs of twelve AYA exposed to family violence. Semi-structured face-to-face interviews using purposive sampling to reach diversity. Open thematic coding was used to identify the most important themes.ResultsParticipants experienced emotional problems, distrusted others and felt unsafe as an important consequence of their exposure to family violence. All participants expressed a need for help, but as help involved informing others, they considered it unsafe. Trust, safety and control regarding healthcare interventions emerged as vital needs. The anonymity of the Internet was considered as offering safeguards in seeking and receiving help.ConclusionTrust, safety and control regarding healthcare interventions emerged as vital needs for AYA exposed to family violence. The great importance of being in control of healthcare interventions has not been reported earlier. A personal bond can lower the need for control.Practice implicationsTo comply with the three basic needs, healthcare providers should grant AYA as much control as possible while still monitoring patient safety. The Internet can be an important resource for offering low-threshold professional and peer support.     

Adults make a difference: the protective effects of parent and teacher emotional support on emotional and behavioral problems of peer‐victimized adolescents

This longitudinal study investigated the associations between peer victimization and maladaptive outcomes (emotional and behavioral problems) among 580 adolescents concurrently and across a 2‐year period, and proposed that adult emotional support moderated this association. Peer victimization and maladaptive outcomes were assessed from adolescents' self‐reports. Adult emotional support was measured from adolescents' ratings of parent and teacher emotional support. Adolescents who were physically or relationally victimized by their peers were at risk of emotional and behavioral problems. Higher levels of father and teacher emotional support were associated with lower levels of adolescents' emotional and behavioral problems concurrently and across time. Higher levels of mother emotional support were associated with lower levels of emotional problems and moderated the effects of physical victimization on maladjustment for concurrent assessments only. Teacher emotional support moderated the association between relational victimization and emotional and behavioral problems across time. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Using community and family risk and protective factors for community‐based prevention planning

Research has identified risk and protective factors related to adolescent substance use using individual‐level data, but it is uncertain whether or not these relationships exist when data are aggregated to a community level. Using data from adolescents in 41 communities, this article found that most community and family risk and protective factors, measured at the community level, predicted student prevalences of tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use 2 years later, whether using information from the same or different groups of students, although the predictive power was stronger within cohorts. The findings support community‐level prevention planning that uses epidemiological information on levels of community and family risk and protective factors to identify areas of elevated risk and low protection to be targeted for community‐based preventive interventions. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 35: 535–555, 2007.     

Cross‐sectional and longitudinal effects of sixth‐grade setting‐level norms for nonviolent problem solving on aggression and associated attitudes

Setting‐level norms are typically measured by using the mean of individual reports. Investigating norms for nonviolent problem solving, this study assessed the added value of two additional characteristics: the range of acceptable behaviors and the degree of consensus among individuals in each setting. Using data from 5,386 participants in a violence prevention project (74 classes), this study estimated the cross‐sectional and longitudinal effects of norm characteristics on aggression, beliefs about aggression, self‐efficacy for nonviolence, and beliefs about nonviolence. Each norm measure showed acceptable setting‐level reliability. Class mean approval predicted beliefs about aggression, self‐efficacy, and beliefs about nonviolence. With class means already in the model, the range of acceptable behaviors predicted additional cross‐sectional variance in all four outcomes. Consensus predicted aggression and beliefs about nonviolence beyond other characteristics. Mean approval and consensus had effects on growth in at least one outcome. Discussion focuses on the importance of setting‐level measurement and implications for intervention. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.