矫形器在儿童手烧伤瘢痕畸形植皮修复术后手功能康复中的应用效果研究

目的:探讨儿童手烧伤瘢痕畸形植皮修复术后矫形器联合综合康复手段在儿童手功能康复中的应用效果。方法:选择2016年5月-2019年3月笔者科室收治的符合纳入标准的患儿60例,分为实验组(n=30)和对照组(n=30)。对照组采用综合康复手段(运动疗法联合压力治疗),在康复治疗师指导下进行手功能康复训练,佩戴量身定制压力手套。实验组在对照组基础上进行矫形器佩戴。在治疗前、治疗后3个月,两组分别采用温哥华瘢痕评分量表、手指总关节活动度、Jebsen手功能测试、Barthel指数对患儿的瘢痕、运动功能、手功能及日常生活活动能力进行评价。结果:治疗后,实验组在瘢痕情况、运动功能、手功能及日常生活活动能力方面改善情况均优于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:矫形器联合综合康复手段在儿童手烧伤瘢痕畸形植皮修复术后能够改善运动功能、手功能,提高日常生活活动能力。     

早期治疗与康复一体化护理模式对深Ⅱ度烧伤创面愈合效果的影响分析

目的:探讨早期治疗与康复一体化护理模式对深Ⅱ度烧伤创面愈合效果的影响。方法:选择笔者医院2017年1月-2018年12月收治的106例深Ⅱ度烧伤患者作为研究对象,根据入院先后顺序,采用随机数字表法分为观察组和对照组,各53例。对照组沿用常规康复护理模式,观察组实施早期治疗与康复一体化护理模式。随访3个月,记录伤后14d视觉模拟评分法(Visual analogue scoring,VAS)评分、创面上皮覆盖比例和创面完全愈合时间,观察创面愈合后瘢痕增生情况,并采用温哥华瘢痕量表(Vancouver scar scale,VSS)评估瘢痕增生程度,采用简明烧伤健康量表(Burn specific health scale,BSHS-A)评估生存质量。结果:观察组伤后14d VAS评分低于对照组,创面上皮覆盖比例高于对照组,创面完全愈合时间短于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。两组患者均获得随访,观察组出院时及出院3个月VSS评分均明显低于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。在治疗前BSHS-A评分上两组差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。出院时及出院3个月,观察组BSHS-A评分均明显高于对照组,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:实施早期治疗与康复一体化护理模式能加快深Ⅱ度烧伤创面愈合,在减轻疼痛程度、延续愈合后瘢痕增生上较常规康复护理模式具有显著优势,值得临床推广应用。     

治疗与康复一体化护理模式结合心理疏导在烧伤患者中的应用

目的:分析治疗与康复一体化模式结合心理疏导在烧伤患者中的应用效果。方法:选取2016年3月-2019年4月笔者医院收治的烧伤患者164例,按照随机数表法分为两组,两组患者均接受烧伤后常规治疗,观察组采取治疗与康复一体化结合心理疏导模式进行干预,对照组接受常规康复治疗及健康宣教,比较两组视觉模拟评分法评分(Visual ananlogue scoring,VAS)及瘢痕指数(Scar index,SI),采用汉密尔顿焦虑量表(Hamilton depression scale,HAMD)和汉密尔顿抑郁量表(Hamilton depression scale,HAMD)对患者干预后的焦虑抑郁程度进行评分,采用巴式量表(Barthel index)、简明烧伤健康量表(Burn specific health scale,BSHS-A)对患者的日常生活活动能力、生活质量进行系统性评价。结果:观察组VAS评分、SI、创面愈合时间、HMAD评分、HAMA评分均显著低于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);观察组Barthel评分、BSHS-A评分显著高于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P0.05);观察组并发症发生率与对照组比较差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。结论:烧伤患者实施治疗与康复一体化结合心理疏导护理模式能减轻疼痛,加速创面愈合,减少瘢痕增生,降低抑郁焦虑等负面情绪,提高日常生活能力和生活质量。     

早期康复对烧伤患儿手功能改善的影响

手是最常见的儿童烧伤部位之一。创面愈合后, 手部的增生性瘢痕挛缩会导致关节活动度(ROM)、运动能力和精细运动活动进一步降低。康复可以改善手的功能, 但康复干预的最佳时间尚不清楚。因此, 该研究旨在调查早期康复治疗对手部烧伤患儿的效果, 并与后期康复治疗效果进行比较。将52例手部烧伤患儿分为早期干预组(伤后≤1个月)和后期干预组(伤后>1个月), 2组患儿接受相同的康复方案, 包括皮肤护理、瘢痕按摩、被动及主动关节活动锻炼、压力治疗、佩戴矫形器、玩游戏及采用音乐疗法。结果显示, 早期干预组患儿康复治疗后关节活动度明显改善(P=0.001), 后期干预组患儿康复治疗前后关节活动度无明显差异(P=0.142);早期干预组中38.5%的患儿关节活动度明显改善, 而后期干预组中仅15.4%的患儿关节活动度明显改善;手功能改善与伤后康复时间和住院时长成负相关(P 值分别为0.000 7、0.003), 与康复治疗时长成正相关(P=0.005)。该研究结果表明, 早期康复治疗对手部烧伤患儿关节活动度改善效果更好, 进而在改善手部功能恢复方面显示出更好的效果。     

儿童手烧伤后瘢痕挛缩家庭康复治疗模式的探索

目的探索儿童手烧伤后瘢痕挛缩的家庭康复治疗模式并观察其疗效。方法采用回顾性非随机对照研究方法。2020年3月—2021年3月, 空军军医大学第一附属医院全军烧伤中心收治30例符合入选标准的手深Ⅱ或Ⅲ度烧伤后瘢痕挛缩患儿。根据采取的康复治疗模式, 将18例患儿(23只患手)纳入家庭康复治疗为主组(以下简称家庭康复组)、12例患儿(15只患手)纳入医院康复治疗为主组(以下简称医院康复组), 前组患儿中男11例、女7例, 年龄(4.8±2.1)岁, 创面愈合后(3.1±0.8)d开始康复治疗;后组患儿中男7例、女5例, 年龄(4.6±2.1)岁, 创面愈合后(2.8±0.7)d开始康复治疗。医院康复组患儿以在院主被动康复训练为主, 辅以回家后自主康复训练;家庭康复组患儿接受在院主被动康复训练1～2周后, 在家通过微信平台接受康复治疗师指导进行主被动康复训练。2组患儿均治疗6个月, 治疗期间均佩戴压力手套并联合使用手屈曲训练带和分指支具。治疗前及治疗6个月后, 分别采用改良温哥华瘢痕量表、手总主动活动度法和Carroll上肢功能评定法对患手瘢痕(计算治疗前后瘢痕评分差值)、关节活动度(计算优良...     

基于快速康复理念的护理模式对面部外伤患者美容整形缝合术治疗效果的影响

目的：探究基于快速康复理念的护理模式对面部外伤患者美容整形缝合术治疗效果的影响。方法：选择2019年1月-2021年1月来笔者医院行美容整形缝合术的面部外伤患儿92例,按照随机数表法分成观察组和对照组各46例。对照组采用常规护理干预,观察组采用基于快速康复理念的护理模式。比较两组治疗效果,创面愈合时间、伤口拆线时间及瘢痕增生发生率,比较两组术后第1、3、5天疼痛（Visualanaloguescoring,VAS）评分,并比较两组患儿家属护理满意度。结果：治疗后,观察组及对照组的面部外伤治疗总有效率分别为95.65%、93.48%,两组比较差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）;两组创面愈合时间、伤口拆线时间比较无显著差异（P>0.05）,观察组瘢痕增生发生率低于对照组（P<0.05）;术后第1、3、5天,观察组的VAS评分均低于对照组（P<0.05）;观察组患儿家属的各项护理满意度评分均高于对照组（P<0.05）。结论：采用美容整形缝合术治疗面部外伤患儿效果较好,而基于快速康复理念的护理模式能减少患儿术后瘢痕增生发生,并能减轻患儿术后疼痛,护理满意度高,值得临...     

药物防治瘢痕的研究进展

瘢痕是人体创伤(即使是轻微的损伤)后,在伤口或创面自然愈合过程中一种正常的、必然的生理反应,也是创伤愈合过程的必然结果[1],但创伤愈合后,创面的过度愈合形成增生性瘢痕(hypertrophic scar,HS)或瘢痕疙瘩(keloid,K)影响美观,甚至瘢痕挛缩导致表面器官或关节畸形,影响肢体的活动功能。因此,创伤愈合后,如何防治瘢痕挛缩一直是烧(创)伤外科的热门问题之一。目前瘢痕的治疗方法主要有:药物治疗、压迫治疗、放射治疗、激光治疗以及外科治疗等,但尚无一种方法具有绝对的权威性[2],各种治疗方法都在不断地探索之中,本文仅就药物防治瘢痕方面…     

超脉冲CO_2点阵激光联合药物注射治疗增生性瘢痕

目的观察超脉冲CO_2点阵激光联合药物注射治疗增生性瘢痕的临床疗效。方法对55例增生性瘢痕患者采用超脉冲CO_2点阵激光扫描(CW,Active FX、Deep FX、SCAAR FX模式),治疗后采用美宝烧伤湿润膏外涂2周,治疗周期间隔3个月,治疗疗程3~8次;激光治疗间隔期间根据瘢痕情况行复方倍他米松与5-Fu联合注射治疗。比较患者治疗前后瘢痕疼痛、瘙痒指数、创面愈合时间、色素沉着发生率,并用温哥华瘢痕量表进行评分。结果患者瘢痕的临床疼痛瘙痒感明显好转,温哥华瘢痕量表评分和色素沉着发生率均优于治疗前,差异均有统计学意义(P0.05)。结论超脉冲CO_2激光点阵疗法联合药物注射可有效治疗增生性瘢痕。     

肝素钠软膏对深Ⅱ度烧伤瘢痕增生的预防作用

临床资料:2004年3月-2005年5月,笔者单位收治了45例深Ⅱ度烧伤患者,其中男25例、女20例,年龄(29±11)岁,烧伤面积(4．6±2．2)％TBSA,于伤后(18．6±1．6)d创面自然愈合,随机分为对照组22例和用药组23例。治疗方法及评分标准:对照组创面愈合后未行任何处理;用药组于创面愈合后1周立即均匀涂抹肝素钠软膏(山东正大福瑞达制药有限公司)3次／d,持续6个月。在创面愈合后0(即创面愈合后即时)、1、3、6个月随访,参照文献[1]观察创面瘢痕增生情况并评分。(1)瘙痒和刺痛:瘙痒     

黄芩油膏对增生性瘢痕点阵二氧化碳激光治疗后创面修复的疗效分析

目的:观察黄芩油膏在增生性瘢痕点阵二氧化碳激光治疗后对创面修复的临床疗效。方法:将30例门诊点阵二氧化碳激光治疗的增生性瘢痕患者随机分为治疗组和对照组。治疗组:15例,采用黄芩油膏涂抹创面;对照组:15例,金霉素眼膏涂抹创面。按增生性瘢痕的诊断标准,观察患者的疼痛指数、最后的创面愈合时间、温哥华瘢痕量表评分,来评价疗效。结果:治疗组患者的疼痛指数、最后的创面愈合时间、温哥华瘢痕量表评分明显优于对照组,治疗组治疗后色素沉着明显减少,两组间比较有显著性差异(P0.05)。结论:黄芩油膏运用于增生性瘢痕点阵二氧化碳激光治疗后创面,不仅可以缓解疼痛、促进愈合、减少色素沉着发生,而且临床疗效显著,值得推广。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.