Reliability and Validity of a New Test of Change-of-Direction Speed for Field-Based Sports: the Change-of-Direction and Acceleration Test (CODAT)

Field sport coaches must use reliable and valid tests to assess change-of-direction speed in their athletes. Few tests feature linear sprinting with acute change- of-direction maneuvers. The Change-of-Direction and Acceleration Test (CODAT) was designed to assess field sport change-of-direction speed, and includes a linear 5-meter (m) sprint, 45° and 90° cuts, 3- m sprints to the left and right, and a linear 10-m sprint. This study analyzed the reliability and validity of this test, through comparisons to 20-m sprint (0-5, 0-10, 0-20 m intervals) and Illinois agility run (IAR) performance. Eighteen Australian footballers (age = 23.83 ± 7.04 yrs; height = 1.79 ± 0.06 m; mass = 85.36 ± 13.21 kg) were recruited. Following familiarization, subjects completed the 20-m sprint, CODAT, and IAR in 2 sessions, 48 hours apart. Intra-class correlation coefficients (ICC) assessed relative reliability. Absolute reliability was analyzed through paired samples t-tests (p ≤ 0.05) determining between-session differences. Typical error (TE), coefficient of variation (CV), and differences between the TE and smallest worthwhile change (SWC), also assessed absolute reliability and test usefulness. For the validity analysis, Pearson’s correlations (p ≤ 0.05) analyzed between-test relationships. Results showed no between-session differences for any test (p = 0.19-0.86). CODAT time averaged ~6 s, and the ICC and CV equaled 0.84 and 3.0%, respectively. The homogeneous sample of Australian footballers meant that the CODAT’s TE (0.19 s) exceeded the usual 0.2 x standard deviation (SD) SWC (0.10 s). However, the CODAT is capable of detecting moderate performance changes (SWC calculated as 0.5 x SD = 0.25 s). There was a near perfect correlation between the CODAT and IAR (r = 0.92), and very large correlations with the 20-m sprint (r = 0.75-0.76), suggesting that the CODAT was a valid change-of-direction speed test. Due to movement specificity, the CODAT has value for field sport assessment.

Key points

• The change-of-direction and acceleration test (CODAT) was designed specifically for field sport athletes from specific speed research, and data derived from time-motion analyses of sports such as rugby union, soccer, and Australian football. The CODAT features a linear 5-meter (m) sprint, 45° and 90° cuts and 3-m sprints to the left and right, and a linear 10-m sprint.
• The CODAT was found to be a reliable change-of-direction speed assessment when considering intra-class correlations between two testing sessions, and the coefficient of variation between trials. A homogeneous sample of Australian footballers resulted in absolute reliability limitations when considering differences between the typical error and smallest worthwhile change. However, the CODAT will detect moderate (0.5 times the test’s standard deviation) changes in performance.
• The CODAT correlated with the Illinois agility run, highlighting that it does assess change-of-direction speed. There were also significant relationships with short sprint performance (i.e. 0-5 m and 0-10 m), demonstrating that linear acceleration is assessed within the CODAT, without the extended duration and therefore metabolic limitations of the IAR. Indeed, the average duration of the test (~6 seconds) is field sport-specific. Therefore, the CODAT could be used as an assessment of change-of-direction speed in field sport athletes.

Key words: Lateral cutting, field testing, Illinois agility run, linear speed, team sports     

Validity and Reliability of the LIDO Active Isokinetic System

No grant monies were used for this research. When evaluating a strength testing method, reliability rather than validity, the most critical component, is most frequently addressed. The purpose of this study was to assess the validity and reliability of the LIDO Active system in the isokinetic mode. Velocity and torque were continuously monitored while torques of 10.4, 25.6, 30.6, and 89.6 ft-lb were applied to the actuator with the speed set at 5 degrees /sec. This was done through a 200 degrees arc of motion concentrically and eccentrically. The procedure was repeated one week later to determine reliability. Analysis of variance revealed no significant variance associated with the date of measurement regarding angular velocity. The maximum deviation of angular velocity from the selected speed was 0.02 degrees /sec. Pearson's r values for measured torque averaged r = 1.00 using paired data from the two test dates. The mean correlation coefficient relating observed to expected torques was Rho = 0.98. These results demonstrate that the LIDO Active system is both valid and reliable within the torque and velocity limitations described. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1992;15(1):32-36.     

Validity and Reliability of the Achilles Tendon Total Rupture Score

The best treatment of acute Achilles tendon rupture remains debated. Patient-reported outcome measures have become cornerstones in treatment evaluations. The Achilles tendon total rupture score (ATRS) has been developed for this purpose but requires additional validation. The purpose of the present study was to validate a Danish translation of the ATRS. The ATRS was translated into Danish according to internationally adopted standards. Of 142 patients, 90 with previous rupture of the Achilles tendon participated in the validity study and 52 in the reliability study. The ATRS showed moderately strong correlations with the physical subscores of the Medical Outcomes Study 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (r = .70 to .75; p < .0001) and Victorian Institute of Sports Assessment-Achilles questionnaire (r = .71; p < .0001). Test-retest of the ATRS showed no significant difference in the mean (2.41; p = .07). The limits of agreement were ±18.53. A strong correlation was found between test and retest (intercorrelation coefficient .908); the standard error of measurement was 6.7, and the minimal detectable change was 18.5. The Danish version of the ATRS showed moderately strong criterion validity. For study and follow-up purposes, the ATRS seems reliable for comparisons of groups of patients. Its usability is limited for repeated assessment of individual patients. The development of analysis guidelines would be desirable.     

Reliability and Validity Testing of an Archery Chronometer

Keeping the arrow velocity constant during consecutive shots and responding to “clicker’s fall ”are considered to be an important feature of archery performance. A specially designed device called an archery chronometer was developed to measure the reaction time of an archer to clicker’s fall, arrow velocity, and external factors that may affect arrow velocity. The purposes of this study were to test (1) the validity of Clicker Reaction Time (CRT) measurer, and (2) the reliability of CRT in accordance with the Flying Time (FT)/Average Speed (AS), temperature (TEMP), wind speed (WS) and wind direction (WD) measurements. 20 elite archers participated in this study. The Reaction Time (RT), which was derived from EMG values and CRT from the archery chronometer were correlated to test the validity of the CRT measurer. The test re-test method was applied to test the reliability of archery chronometer. CRT scores were related with RT scores (r = .787, p < 0.01). The archery chronometer was valid in terms of predicting reaction time. The device was found to be reliable in measuring CRT, AS, FT, WS, WD, and TEMP. It was concluded that archery chronometer could be used for technical evaluation and enhancing ones shooting technique in archery.

Key Points

• Clicker Reaction Time could be used as a predictor of Reaction Time in archery.
• Archery Chronometer can be used for evaluating the archers’ shooting technique and the bow-arrow interaction.
• Archery Chronometer can also be used as an indicator for ballistic flight of an arrow.
• Archery Chronometer can be used by the coaches and the archers to evaluate and enhance shooting technique in the natural settings of their training environment.

Key words: Archery, electromyography (EMG), reaction time, muscular analysis     

Reliability and Validity of the OMNI-Vibration Exercise Scale of Perceived Exertion

This study examined reliability and concurrent validity of the newly developed OMNI-vibration exercise scale (OMNI-VIBRO) to measure Ratings of Perceived Exertion (RPE) during vibration exercise in twenty recreationally active students (12 males and 8 females). The criterion variables were muscle activity of the Vastus Medialis (VM), Vastus Lateralis (VL), Biceps Femoris (BF), and Medial Gastrocnemius (MG) muscles, as well as accelerations (12.5, 20.2, 30.9, 36.3, 60.1, and 88.4 m·s^-2). RPE was registered during the final of each 30 s condition. Each participant attended two laboratory testing sessions. Positive linear regression coefficients (p < 0.001) were found between RPE (OMNI-VIBRO) and acceleration (r = 0.976) and muscle activity of lower-body muscles (r = 0.942). Between session (test-retest), reliability of RPE (OMNI-VIBRO) was good (ICC: 0.790. 95% CI: 0.699-0.854). Conclusions: findings provided concurrent validation of the OMNI-VIBRO to measure RPE for the active muscle and overall body in recreationally active students performing lower-body vibration exercise.

Key points

• The pictorial-verbal category scale of perception of exertion (OMNI-VIBRO) during lower body vibration exercise on a vibration platform showed good concurrent validity.
• The OMNI-VIBRO method in conjunction with WBV exercise would allow coaches, fitness professionals, or health-care personnel to assess the intensity that corresponds to the level of the vibratory stimulus.
• The OMNI-VIBRO could be a useful tool of measuring the different intensities of a vibratory-training session and altering the vibratory stimulus in a periodized fashion.

Key words: Validation, perceived exertion, vibration, EMG.     

Reliability and Validity of the Dutch Translated Aberdeen Varicose Vein Questionnaire

ObjectiveTo evaluate reliability and validity of the Dutch translated Aberdeen Varicose Vein Questionnaire (AVVQ) for measuring health related quality of life (HR-QOL) in patients with venous disease in the lower limb.MethodsThe AVVQ consists of 13 questions related varicose veins. This study assessed feasibility, reliability and validity of the Dutch translated AVVQ in a sample of 145 patients with venous disease of the leg. Test and retest of the Dutch translated AVVQ were performed within a 2 week interval.ResultsThere was a high test (99%) and retest (97%) response. Feasibility; AVVQ showed few missing answers (0.6%) and non-unique answers (0.2%). Regarding internal consistency; Cronbach's α exceeded 0.7 indicating a high level of concordance between the AVVQ questions (α = 0.76). Test–retest reliability; Spearman's rho showed a significant strong association between test and retest scores (rho = 0.87). Discriminative validity; AVVQ score was able to differentiate between subgroups of patients with different severity of venous disease according to the CEAP classification (Mann–Whitney U test, p < 0.01).ConclusionsThis study supports applications of the Dutch AVVQ in HR-QOL measurement in patients with venous disease in the Netherlands and the Flemish speaking part of Belgium.     

Reliability and Validity Assessment of a Linear Position Transducer

The objectives of the study were to determine the validity and reliability of peak velocity (PV), average velocity (AV), peak power (PP) and average power (AP) measurements were made using a linear position transducer. Validity was assessed by comparing measurements simultaneously obtained using the Tendo Weightlifting Analyzer Systemi and T-Force Dynamic Measurement Systemr (Ergotech, Murcia, Spain) during two resistance exercises, bench press (BP) and full back squat (BS), performed by 71 trained male subjects. For the reliability study, a further 32 men completed both lifts using the Tendo Weightlifting Analyzer Systemz in two identical testing sessions one week apart (session 1 vs. session 2). Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) indicating the validity of the Tendo Weightlifting Analyzer Systemi were high, with values ranging from 0.853 to 0.989. Systematic biases and random errors were low to moderate for almost all variables, being higher in the case of PP (bias ±157.56 W; error ±131.84 W). Proportional biases were identified for almost all variables. Test-retest reliability was strong with ICCs ranging from 0.922 to 0.988. Reliability results also showed minimal systematic biases and random errors, which were only significant for PP (bias -19.19 W; error ±67.57 W). Only PV recorded in the BS showed no significant proportional bias. The Tendo Weightlifting Analyzer Systemi emerged as a reliable system for measuring movement velocity and estimating power in resistance exercises. The low biases and random errors observed here (mainly AV, AP) make this device a useful tool for monitoring resistance training.

Key points

• This study determined the validity and reliability of peak velocity, average velocity, peak power and average power measurements made using a linear position transducer
• The Tendo Weight-lifting Analyzer Systemi emerged as a reliable system for measuring movement velocity and power.

Key words: Back squat, bench press, concentric phase, weight training exercises     

Effects of Electrostimulation and Plyometric Training Program Combination on Jump Height in Teenage Athletes

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of eight-week (2 days/week) training periods of plyometric exercises (PT) and neuromuscular electrostimulation (EMS) on jump height in young athletes. Squat jump (SJ), counter movement jump (CMJ) and drop jump (DJ) were performed to assess the effects of the training protocols 98 athletes (100 & 200m and 100m & 110m hurdles) voluntarily took part in this study, 51 males (52%) and 47 females (48%), 17.91 ± 1.42 years old, and 5.16 ± 2.56 years of training experience. The participants were randomly assigned to four different groups according to the frequency and the timing of the stimulation. Analysis of covariance was used to analyze the effects of every training program on jump height. Our findings suggest that compared to control (Plyometrics (PT) only), the combination of 150Hz EMS + PT simultaneously combined in an 8 week (2days/week) training program, we could observe significant jump height improvements in the different types of strength: explosive, explosive-elastic, and explosive-elastic-reactive. The combination of PT after ≤ 85 Hz EMS did not show any jump height significant increase in sprinters. In conclusion, an eight week training program (with just two days per week) of EMS combined with plyometric exercises has proven useful for the improvement of every kind of vertical jump ability required for sprint and hurdles disciplines in teenage athletes.

Key points

• The combined use of high frequency electromyostimulation and plyometric training 2 days/week in an 8 week training program produce significant improvements in jump height in teenage athletes.
• A high-frequency (≥ 150 Hz) EMS and its simultaneous application with PT can significantly contribute to the improvement of the three different types of strength manifestations (explosive, explosive-elastic and explosive-elastic-reactive strength).
• An alternate training with different stimulation frequencies [85Hz EMS/ PT combination and 150Hz EMS + PT simultaneous combination] only has significant improvement effects in SJ.
• The combination of PT after ≤ 85 Hz EMS did not show any jump height significant increase in teenage athletes.
• The timing of EMS and PT application during training must be taken into account according to the type of jump.

Key words: Jump height, squat jump, counter movement jump, drop jump, combined training     

Criterion-Related Validity of Sit-and-Reach Tests for Estimating Hamstring and Lumbar Extensibility: a Meta-Analysis

The main purpose of the present meta-analysis was to examine the scientific literature on the criterion-related validity of sit-and-reach tests for estimating hamstring and lumbar extensibility. For this purpose relevant studies were searched from seven electronic databases dated up through December 2012. Primary outcomes of criterion-related validity were Pearson´s zero-order correlation coefficients (r) between sit-and-reach tests and hamstrings and/or lumbar extensibility criterion measures. Then, from the included studies, the Hunter- Schmidt´s psychometric meta-analysis approach was conducted to estimate population criterion- related validity of sit-and-reach tests. Firstly, the corrected correlation mean (rp), unaffected by statistical artefacts (i.e., sampling error and measurement error), was calculated separately for each sit-and-reach test. Subsequently, the three potential moderator variables (sex of participants, age of participants, and level of hamstring extensibility) were examined by a partially hierarchical analysis. Of the 34 studies included in the present meta-analysis, 99 correlations values across eight sit-and-reach tests and 51 across seven sit-and-reach tests were retrieved for hamstring and lumbar extensibility, respectively. The overall results showed that all sit-and-reach tests had a moderate mean criterion-related validity for estimating hamstring extensibility (rp = 0.46-0.67), but they had a low mean for estimating lumbar extensibility (rp = 0. 16-0.35). Generally, females, adults and participants with high levels of hamstring extensibility tended to have greater mean values of criterion-related validity for estimating hamstring extensibility. When the use of angular tests is limited such as in a school setting or in large scale studies, scientists and practitioners could use the sit-and-reach tests as a useful alternative for hamstring extensibility estimation, but not for estimating lumbar extensibility.

Key Points

• Overall sit-and-reach tests have a moderate mean criterion-related validity for estimating hamstring extensibility, but they have a low mean validity for estimating lumbar extensibility.
• Among all the sit-and-reach test protocols, the Classic sit-and-reach test seems to be the best option to estimate hamstring extensibility.
• End scores (e.g., the Classic sit-and-reach test) are a better indicator of hamstring extensibility than the modifications that incorporate fingers-to-box distance (e.g., the Modified sit-and-reach test).
• When angular tests such as straight leg raise or knee extension tests cannot be used, sit-and-reach tests seem to be a useful field test alternative to estimate hamstring extensibility, but not to estimate lumbar extensibility.

Key Words: Concurrent validity, range of motion, flexibility, field test, lineal test, systematic review     

ICU护理工作量测量量表信效度检测

目的检测ICU护理工作量测量量表（ICNSS）的信度和效度，使其适合ICU护理工作量测量。方法严格遵循英文量表翻译原则翻译ICNSS，依据原评分原则并结合国情列出ICNSS评分细则，依据专家对ICNSS内容效度评定结果对评分细则进行修订，并应用修订后的中文版ICNSS量表在ICU收集护理工作量，测量观察者间信度、量表内在一致性和区分效度。结果修订后的ICNSS量表各项目和评分细则内容效度指数均达到0，80以上；观察者间信度为95．45％；量表总的内在一致性为0．83，各子项目内在一致性为0．62～0.76；在不同患者群体间显示护理工作量具有显著性差异（P〈0．01）。结论修订后ICNSS量表适用于ICU护理工作量的评估。     

ICU护理工作量测量量表信效度检测

目的 检测ICU护理工作量测量量表(ICNSS)的信度和效度,使其适合ICU护理工作量测量.方法 严格遵循英文量表翻译原则翻译ICNSS,依据原评分原则并结合国情列出ICNSS评分细则,依据专家对ICNSS内容效度评定结果对评分细则进行修订,并应用修订后的中文版ICNSS量表在ICU收集护理工作量,测量观察者间信度、量表内在一致性和区分效度.结果 修订后的ICNSS量表各项目和评分细则内容效度指数均达到0.80以上;观察者间信度为95.45%;量表总的内在一致性为0.83,各子项目内在一致性为0.62～0.76;在不同患者群体间显示护理工作量具有显著性差异(P＜0.01).结论 修订后ICNSS量表适用于ICU护理工作量的评估.     

Reliability of the Measurement of Cuboid Height in Midfoot Charcot Neuroarthropathy

Cuboid height is a quantitative radiographic measurement of the relationship of the inferior cuboid to the plantar osseous plane of the lateral column of the foot and might be associated with poor clinical outcomes in patients with midfoot Charcot neuroarthropathy. We evaluated the reliability of the cuboid height measured by a group of foot and ankle surgeons on subjects with midfoot Charcot neuroarthropathy. Ten board-certified foot and ankle surgeons, 10 residents, and 10 medical students measured the cuboid height on 11 lateral weightbearing radiographic projections of subjects with midfoot Charcot neuroarthropathy. Cuboid height measurements were grouped categorically with calculation of an intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC). Ten unique images were used, with 1 repeated image to provide a measure of intrarater agreement. The overall measure of reliability of cuboid height measurement was an ICC of 0.997. Specifically, the ICC was 0.987 for surgeons, 0.992 for residents, and 0.989 for students. Participants were in agreement with the repeated measure in 24 (80.0%) of 30 cases. Specifically, each group (surgeons, residents, and students) were each in agreement for 8 (80.0%) of 10 repeated measurements. In conclusion, these results demonstrate excellent reliability for radiographic measurement of cuboid height on subjects with midfoot Charcot neuroarthropathy. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first investigation to provide a measure of reliability for this radiographic outcome, which is potentially related to clinical outcomes in the evaluation and treatment of this challenging patient cohort.