Future directions in cardiocerebral resuscitation

Outcomes from pediatric cardiac arrest and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) seem to be incrementally improving. The past 2 decades have brought advances in the understanding of the pathophysiology of cardiac arrest and ventricular fibrillation, better treatment strategies, and a more robust standard for CPR epidemiology and research reporting. The evolution of practice based on an improved understanding of the pathophysiology and timing, intensity, duration, and variability of the hypoxic-ischemic insult should lead to goal-directed therapy gated to the phase of cardiac arrest and the postarrest period encountered. By strategically focusing therapies to specific phases of cardiac arrest and resuscitation and to the evolving pathophysiology and by implementing evidence-based practice, there is great promise that critical care interventions can lead the way to more successful cardiopulmonary and cerebral resuscitation in children.     

Basic and advanced paediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation - guidelines of the Australian and New Zealand Resuscitation Councils 2010

Guidelines for basic and advanced paediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) have been revised by Australian and New Zealand Resuscitation Councils. Changes encourage CPR out-of-hospital and aim to improve the quality of CPR in-hospital. Features of basic CPR include: omission of abdominal thrusts for foreign body airway obstruction; commencement with chest compression followed by ventilation in a ratio of 30:2 or compression-only CPR if the rescuer is unwilling/unable to give expired-air breathing when the victim is 'unresponsive and not breathing normally'. Use of automated external defibrillators is encouraged. Features of advanced CPR include: prevention of cardiac arrest by rapid response systems; restriction of pulse palpation to 10 s to diagnosis cardiac arrest; affirmation of 15:2 compression-ventilation ratio for children and for infants other than newly born; initial bag-mask ventilation before tracheal intubation; a single direct current shock of 4 J/kg for ventricular fibrillation (VF) and pulseless ventricular tachycardia followed by immediate resumption of CPR for 2 min without analysis of cardiac rhythm and avoidance of unnecessary interruption of continuous external cardiac compressions. Monitoring of exhaled carbon dioxide is recommended to detect non-tracheal intubation, assess quality of CPR, and to help match ventilation to reduced cardiac output. The intraosseous route is recommended if immediate intravenous access is impossible. Amiodarone is strongly favoured over lignocaine for refractory VF and adrenaline over atropine for severe bradycardia, asystole and pulseless electrical activity. Family presence at resuscitation is encouraged. Therapeutic hypothermia is acceptable after resuscitation to improve neurological outcome. Extracorporeal circulatory support for in-hospital cardiac arrest may be used in equipped centres.     

Ethics and pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a medical activity that involves major ethical issues. As in other areas of clinical ethics, CPR decisions must be based on the principles of autonomy, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice. The decision-making process is more difficult in emergency situations, and when the patient is a minor, the parents and the child's best interests must be taken into consideration. There are specific situations in which starting CPR is clearly indicated and others in which ceasing resuscitation maneuvers is justified. Do not attempt resuscitation orders must be respected by health staff. Other ethical issues involved in CPR include resuscitation of potential organ donors, learning CPR procedures, research in CPR, and the information given to the parents of children with cardiorespiratory arrest.     

Is cardiopulmonary resuscitation warranted in children who suffer cardiac arrest post trauma?

The use of cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is accepted universally for patients with cardiovascular compromise. However, outcomes from CPR in subsets of trauma patients may not be as good as initially thought. This article reviews the literature on outcomes from traumatic arrest in both adults and children. Outcomes for adults and children are similar, although the types of injuries may differ. Patients with asystolic arrest at the scene have very poor survival, and those who do survive sustain severe neurological injury. Recognizing that most providers would feel uncomfortable at not attempting resuscitation, the length and degree of aggressiveness of CPR is addressed. Finally, we discuss possible reasons to resuscitate. Organ donation and the ethics of nontherapeutic ventilation and other strategies to increase the donor pool are discussed. We hope to stimulate discussion around a very difficult issue.     

Review of resuscitation physiology in children

More than one quarter of children survive to hospital discharge after in-hospital cardiac arrests, and 5–10% of children survive to hospital discharge after out-of-hospital cardiac arrests. Cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR) differs in children from adults. Following the Airway, Breathing, Circulation format, this article reviews the physiology of paediatric cardio-pulmonary resuscitation. It addresses the appropriate interventions during CPR, mechanisms of action of commonly used drugs and special resuscitation circumstances: premature and newly born infants, traumatic cardiac arrest, and ECMO (Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation). New exciting discoveries in resuscitation science postulate that the key factor in improving outcomes of paediatric cardiac arrest is improving the quality of interventions. A thorough understanding of the physiology underpinning CPR is helpful in ensuring optimal delivery of CPR in children and improving clinical outcomes.     

Current and future therapies of pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest

Objective  To review contemporary guidelines and therapies for pediatric cardiac arrest and discuss potential novel therapies. Methods  Key articles and guidelines in the field were reviewed along with recent publications in the fields of neurointensive care and neuroscience germane to cerebral resuscitation. Results  A total of 45 articles were reviewed. The majority of arrests in the pediatric population are asphyxial in origin-which differs importantly from the adult population. The International Consensus on CPR guidelines are discussed, including good quality CPR, chest compressions without interruptions, resuscitation with 100% oxygen and subsequent titration of oxygen to normal oxygen saturations, correct dose of epinephrine, and use of hypothermia in the first 12–24 hours. Novel therapies that showed success in animal studies, such as hypertensive reperfusion, thrombolytics, hemodilution and extracorporeal CPR are also discussed. Conclusion  With only 30% return of spontaneous circulation, 12% survival to hospital discharge and 4% intact neurologic survival, pediatric cardiac arrest remains an area of intense research for therapies to improve its outcomes. In addition to the rapid implementation of basic and advanced life support interventions, new therapies that may have value include mild hypothermia, extracorporeal support, promotion of cerebral blood flow and other more novel therapies targeting oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, neuronal death, and rehabilitation.     

住院患儿发生心跳呼吸骤停复苏后存活率的预测因素分析

目的 探讨发生心跳呼吸骤停(CRA)住院儿童复苏后存活率的预测因素.方法 回顾性分析PICU发生CRA患儿的临床及心肺复苏(CPR)、复苏后资料,并进行单因素分析以及多因素非条件Logistic回归分析,探讨近期和远期存活率的预测因素.结果 2006年1月至2008年12月烟台毓璜顶医院PICU发生CRA并接受CPR的87例患儿中,43例恢复自主循环,复苏成功率为48.3%,24 h存活31例(35.6%);存活出院19例(21.8%).单因素分析结果显示:原发病、合并症以及发生骤停类型、气管插管、有效复苏时问、应用肾上腺素的剂量、复苏后24 h内体温、复苏后6 h血糖值、复苏后合并症均影响复苏后24 h存活率和出院存活率;Logistic回归分析示原发病、复苏时间为24 h存活率的预测因素;原发病、复苏时间、复苏后24 h体温为出院存活率的预测因素.结论 住院患儿发生CRA后近期、远期存活率均低,原发病及合并症、CPR质量以及复苏后管理均影响存活率,其中原发病、复苏时间为近期存活率预测因素,原发病、复苏时间、复苏后24 h体温为远期存活率的预测因素.     

Improving Outcomes from Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest in Young Children and Adolescents

Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) is an unusual but devastating occurrence in a young person. Years of life-lost are substantial and long-term health care costs of survivors can be high. However, there have been noteworthy improvements in cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) standards, out-of hospital care, and postcardiac arrest therapies that have resulted in a several-fold improvement in resuscitation outcomes. Recent interest and research in resuscitation of children has the promise of generating improvements in the outcomes of these patients. Integrated and coordinated care in the out-of-hospital and hospital settings are required. This article will review the epidemiology of OHCA, the 2010 CPR guidelines, and developments in public access defibrillation for children.     

CPR-why the new emphasis?

The importance of high quality, prompt cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) for patients in cardiac arrest is receiving new attention and emphasis. This extends to CPR for children. In this article, the authors examine the differences in pediatric anatomy and the mechanisms of blood flow during CPR. Additionally, new evidence on the frequent poor performance of CPR and mechanisms to improve it are presented.     

Pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation. A review of 130 cases

Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) records of 130 pediatric patients with cardiac arrest were reviewed. Ninety-six resuscitations were performed on patients hospitalized on the Medical and Surgical units of the Children's Hospital of Philadelphia (HP) and 34 on Emergency Department patients (EDPs). In HP, initial survival was 90%. In 27% of HPs, airway and breathing techniques alone were life saving. A mean of 2.45 drugs per patient were used for HP. In EDP, initial survival was 56%. There had been advanced CPR during the prehospital transport phase for the EDPs. All but two EDPs required drug management. The mean was 4.25 drugs per patient. Lidocaine and direct current defibrillation were used only rarely. Glucose was used frequently (33%) and should be considered in the list of essential resuscitation drugs. The necessity for resuscitation was most commonly associated with pulmonary diseases. These findings reflect differences between pediatric CPR and adult CPR, and suggest limitations in applying adult standards to infants and children. It is suggested that the medical community develop separate pediatric CPR courses as independent modules for those who assume responsibility for resuscitating children.     

Factors influencing outcome of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children

We evaluated 47 pediatric patients after cardiopulmonary arrest. Patients entered the study with the onset of advanced life support. We followed them until death, or discharge from the hospital, occurred. We identified three groups of patients: long-term survivors, who survived to discharge, short-term survivors, who survived longer than 24 hours after CPR but not until discharge, and nonsurvivors, who died within 24 hours of their arrest. All of the long-term surviving patients were discharged from the hospital without gross neurologic deficit attributable to the arrest or resuscitation effort. Twenty-seven (57%) children were successfully resuscitated. Eighteen (38%) were long term-survivors, while nine (19%) were short-term survivors. Favorable outcome is associated with the following factors: inhospital arrest, extreme bradycardia as the presenting arrhythmia, successful resuscitation with only ventilation, oxygen and closed chest massage, and a duration of CPR of less than 15 minutes. Age, sex, and race, as well as pupillary reaction and motor response at the onset of advanced life support, did not correlate with long-term survival.     

Factors influencing outcome of inpatient pediatric resuscitation

The aims of this study were: 1) To define the rate of long-term survivors (LTS) after cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in children; 2) To identify the predictors of survival in pediatric resuscitation; and 3) To assess the outcome six months after discharge. Three groups of patients were identified based on outcome: 1. Long-term survivors (LTS), who were discharged, 2. Short-term survivors (STS), who survived longer than 24 hours after CPR but not until discharge, and 3. Nonsurvivors (NS), who died within 24 hours after their arrest. Of the 67 patients, 10 (14.9%) children were STS, while 46 (68.7%) were NS. Only eleven (16.4%) were LTS who were eventually discharged from the hospital and six were alive six months after discharge. Four patients had neurological sequelae. Less than 5 minutes' duration of CPR and reactive pupils at the onset of cardiopulmonary arrest (CPA) were the most important factors that predicted long term survival. We suggest that a positive pupillary light reflex at the onset of CPA and the duration of CPR should be considered as important predictors of survival in children with CPA.     

Effects of active compression-decompression cardiopulmonary resuscitation with the inspiratory threshold valve in a young porcine model of cardiac arrest

Active compression-decompression (ACD) cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) with the inspiratory threshold valve (ITV) has been recently recommended by the American Heart Association for treatment of adults in cardiac arrest (class IIb: alternative, useful intervention), but this new technique has never been used in a pediatric population. Thus, this study was designed to evaluate ACD + ITV CPR in a young porcine model of cardiac arrest. After 10 min of ventricular fibrillation, and 8 min of standard CPR, ACD + ITV CPR was performed in seven 4- to 6-wk-old pigs (8-12 kg); defibrillation was attempted 8 min later. Within 2 min after initiation of ACD + ITV CPR, mean (+/- SEM) coronary perfusion pressure increased from 18 +/- 2 to 24 +/- 3 mm Hg (p = 0.018). During standard versus ACD + ITV CPR, mean left ventricular myocardial and total cerebral blood flow was 59 +/- 21 versus 126 +/- 32 mL.min(-1).100 g(-1), and 36 +/- 7 versus 60 +/- 15 mL.min(-1).100 g(-1), respectively (p = 0.028). Six of seven animals were successfully defibrillated, and survived >15 min. In conclusion, the combination of ACD + ITV CPR significantly increased both coronary perfusion pressure and vital organ blood flow after prolonged standard CPR in this young porcine model of ventricular fibrillation.     

Neurointensive care in children

Summary Principles of neurointensive care in children with hypoxic encephalopathy have been discussed. The limit of normothermic cardiac arrest after which complete recovery might be achieved seems to be not five minutes but rather between ten and twenty minutes, about the same for the brain and the heart. Cerebral recovery after cardiac arrest can be improved by shortening cardiac arrest and CPR time, maximizing cerebral perfusion pressure during CPR, restoring normotension, and undertaking measures to achieve intra and extracranial homeostasis. Barbiturates and steroids are of no value in treatment of hypoxic encephalopathy in children. Steroids, however, may be used for treatment of cerebral edema resulting from brain tumors.     

Results of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in children

We retrospectively evaluated the outcome from cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) in 149 children of all age groups. Only 7 children experienced ventricular fibrillation. 47 children (31.5%) died immediately. Further 47 children died within 24 hours of their arrest, 24 (16.1%) survived longer than 24 hours after CPR but not until discharge. Only 31 children (20.8%) survived to discharge, 5 with severe neurologic sequelae, attributable to the arrest or resuscitation efforts. Cardiopulmonary arrests in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit carried the worst prognosis. Better results were obtained out-of-hospital, in the OR or on the pediatric floor. Long-term survival rate did not correlate with age, or type of administered catecholamine. None of the children receiving calcium survived. This large study confirms the poor outcome of CPR in children.     

The new American Heart Association cardiopulmonary resuscitation guidelines: should children and adults have to share?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The latest American Heart Association guidelines for pediatric cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) were published in December 2005. Changes from the 2000 guidelines were directed toward simplifying CPR. Infants, children, and adults now share the same recommendation for the initial compression:ventilation ratio. This is a significant change for pediatricians trained in the importance of a respiratory etiology of pediatric cardiopulmonary arrest. The present review will focus on the rationale behind these guideline changes. RECENT FINDINGS: The new guidelines for single rescuer CPR include a compression:ventilation ratio of 30: 2 for both adult and pediatric victims. The impetus for this recommendation is based on recent appreciation for the deleterious effects of hyperventilation as well as an attempt to increase bystander delivery of CPR. The physiologic results of hyperventilation are discussed. The new pediatric basic life support guideline changes are underscored. Research representing the spectrum of opinions on the optimal compression:ventilation ratio, including compression-only CPR, is presented. SUMMARY: Although based primarily on adult, animal, and computational models, the new compression:ventilation ratio, recommended for both initial pediatric and adult CPR, is a reasonable recommendation. The simplified CPR guidelines released in 2005 will hopefully contribute to improved bystander delivery of CPR and improved outcome.     

Resuscitation update for the pediatrician

Survival and neurologic outcome among pediatric patients in CPA have not improved measurably in the past decade, but the evolution of the pediatric Utstein guidelines has provided those involved in pediatric resuscitation a common language with which to exchange information and hopefully conduct meaningful research. The widespread use of the LMA may hold real promise for airway management of pediatric patients in the prehospital setting. Several of the developments in adult resuscitation, including ACD CPR and IAC CPR, seem auspicious for pediatric patients in cardiac arrest. At first glance, the widespread use of the AED would not be expected to alter the outcome of pediatric patients in CPA, but two studies suggest that ventricular fibrillation is more common in the pediatric population than originally believed, and thus the AED may have a significant role for this group of patients. The value of high-dose epinephrine remains controversial. All of these areas require research in the pediatric population before a judgment on their worth can be made. Research in pediatric resuscitation requires the study of larger populations, most feasibly with multicenter studies. How the "final rule" will influence this type of research remains to be seen. Finally, if investigators are to make real progress in improving the outcome of pediatric patients in CPA, they must concentrate their efforts on education of the lay public and enhancement of prehospital care.     

儿科院外心跳停止的流行病学特点与预后

目的 总结儿科院外心跳停止(OHCA)病例的流行病学特点与预后.方法 回顾性研究2001年1月至2009年12月我院急诊创伤中心(EDTC)收治的OHCA患儿的临床资料,分析与预后相关的因素[年龄、性别、转运工具、有无目击者、是否现场给予心肺复苏(CPR)、OHCA发生地点、OHCA可能原因及治疗等].结果 9年中共收治221例OHCA患儿,男女之比为1.15:1,经急诊抢救恢复自主循环(ROSC)77例(34.84%),出院时存活21例(9.50%).OHCA发生时有目击者、现场给予CPR、初始复苏时使用.肾上腺素使用次数、OHCA发生场所、救护车转运是急诊复苏成功的良好预测指标.初始复苏时肾上腺素使用次数、目击者现场CPR及OHCA发生地点是OHCA患儿最终存活的独立预测因子.意外伤害性疾病(69/221,31.22%)与复杂先天性心脏病(46/221,20.82%)是儿科OHCA主要原因.小于1岁年龄组是儿科OHCA的最好发年龄段(145/221,65.61%).结论 儿科OHCA患者存活率低,预后差,加强意外伤害预防、早期目击者CPR,能减少DHCA的发生率及改善预后.     

PALS update 2005

Many of the changes in BLS recommended in 2005 Guidelines are designed to simplify CPR recommenda-tions, increase the number and quality of chest compressions delivered, and increase the number of uninterrupted chest compressions. The recommendations for compressions have been summarized as, Push harder, push faster, allow the chest to fully recoil, and stop only to use a bag mask to ventilate the patient, analyze the rhythm, deliver a shock or intubate. When such an interruption to compressions occurs, keep the length of that interruption to an absolute minimum. For lay rescuers, a single compression-ventilation ratio (30:2) for all age groups greatly simplifies the instructions for performing CPR. Recommendation of 1 Shock plus Immediate CPR for Attempted Defibrillation for cardiac arrest associated with VF or pulseless VT. Rescuers should not interrupt chest compressions to check circulation until about 5 cycles or approximately 2 minutes of CPR have been provided after the shock. The changes are designed to minimize interruptions in chest compressions. For Neonatal resuscitation, additional evidence was available about the use of oxygen versus room air for resuscitation, the need for clearing the airway of meconium, methods of assisting ventilation, techniques for confirming endotracheal tube placement, and use of the laryngeal mask airway (LMA).     

儿科院外心跳停止的流行病学特点与预后

目的 总结儿科院外心跳停止(OHCA)病例的流行病学特点与预后.方法 回顾性研究2001年1月至2009年12月我院急诊创伤中心(EDTC)收治的OHCA患儿的临床资料,分析与预后相关的因素[年龄、性别、转运工具、有无目击者、是否现场给予心肺复苏(CPR)、OHCA发生地点、OHCA可能原因及治疗等].结果 9年中共收治221例OHCA患儿,男女之比为1.15:1,经急诊抢救恢复自主循环(ROSC)77例(34.84%),出院时存活21例(9.50%).OHCA发生时有目击者、现场给予CPR、初始复苏时使用.肾上腺素使用次数、OHCA发生场所、救护车转运是急诊复苏成功的良好预测指标.初始复苏时肾上腺素使用次数、目击者现场CPR及OHCA发生地点是OHCA患儿最终存活的独立预测因子.意外伤害性疾病(69/221,31.22%)与复杂先天性心脏病(46/221,20.82%)是儿科OHCA主要原因.小于1岁年龄组是儿科OHCA的最好发年龄段(145/221,65.61%).结论 儿科OHCA患者存活率低,预后差,加强意外伤害预防、早期目击者CPR,能减少DHCA的发生率及改善预后.