Higher protein and energy intake is associated with increased weight gain in pre‐term infants

Aim: To characterise and compare the nutritional management and growth in infants <33 weeks' gestation in two tertiary centres. Methods: An audit of daily intake and growth from birth to discharge home was undertaken in two neonatal units: The KK Women's and Children's Hospital Singapore and the Adelaide Women's and Children's Hospital, South Australia. Mixed models were used to model intake and daily weight (g/day) accounting for repeated day per subject. Results: The clinical characteristics of the two cohorts were similar. The Adelaide cohort had a higher initial energy intake in the first 5 days compared with the Singapore cohort, and a significantly greater weekly increase of 21.0 kcal/week (95% CI 7.7–34.3; P = 0.002). The Adelaide cohort also had a higher initial protein intake and a significantly greater weekly increase of 0.88 g/week (95% CI 0.5, 1.3), P < 0.001) compared with the Singapore cohort. The weight gain of the Adelaide cohort was 9 g/day more than the Singapore cohort (95% CI 7.3, 10.7; P < 0.001). Post‐natal growth failure was evident in 32% (n = 64) of the Adelaide cohort and 64% (n = 94) of the Singapore cohort. Conclusions: The two centres showed distinct differences in nutritional management. A higher energy and protein intake was associated with improved growth yet growth in both cohorts was still below current recommendations.     

Optimising nutrition of preterm and term infants in the neonatal intensive care unit

Optimum nutrition leads to improved long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes in both preterm and term infants admitted to the neonatal intensive care (NICU). This review delineates the phases of nutritional management from full parenteral nutrition, transitioning to enteral nutrition and on to full enteral feeds. It describes the essential components of best nutritional care in the neonatal periods and provides practical tips in the management of nutrition in these infants. The authors make recommendations for care based on national and international guidelines and personal expertise of working in a tertiary NICU.     

Neonatal cholelithiasis

Cholelithiasis is very rare in the newborn infant and is usually not recognized until surgery or autopsy following perforation of the biliary tree. Two premature infants had calcified gallstones on abdominal radiographs. In one patient portal vein thrombosis was also present. The other had been treated with total parenteral nutrition (TPN) and furosemide which have recently been implicated in the development of gallstones in premature infants.     

关注疾病状态下儿童的营养支持

患儿的营养状况将影响其疾病康复和预后。在我国,对儿科营养重要性的认识和规范化应用,远远落后于发达国家。为进一步提高我国临床各科对此问题的认识,本刊特设此专题进行讨论,十分必要。下面就国内外相关情况     

两种肠道外营养方法在早产儿中的应用研究

目的 探讨早产儿应用两种肠道外营养(parenteral nutrition,PN)方法的疗效.方法 选择不能耐受完全胃肠道喂养的早产儿42例,随机分为观察组(22例)和对照组(20例).观察组患儿生后24 h内应用氨基酸,自1.0/g(kg·d)开始,每日递增1.0g/(kg·d),直至3.0/g(kg·d);48 h内应用脂肪乳,剂量及添加方法同氨基酸,生后第5天达全静脉营养.对照组患儿生后48 h应用氨基酸,自0.5g/(kg·d)开始,每日递增0.5g/(kg·d),直至3.0g/(kg·d);72 h后应用脂肪乳,剂量及添加方法同氨基酸,生后8～9 d达全静脉营养.两组患儿均监测营养效果,出生72 h内和第10天分别监测血生化指标,观察并发症发生情况.结果 观察组恢复至出生体质量时间、体质量下降幅度、PN时间、过渡到全胃肠道营养时间均较对照组短,差异有统计学意义(P＜0.01).并发症发生情况比较两组差异无统计学意义(x2=0.191,P＞0.05).两组患儿在血糖、总胆红素、尿素氮、二氧化碳结合力、总胆固醇等方面比较差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 早产儿可以耐受生后24 h内早期足量的PN.     

Admission of all gestations to a regional neonatal unit versus controls: Neonatal morbidity

Aims:   To describe the neonatal course and morbidity of all infants admitted to the regional neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) at Christchurch Women's Hospital (CWH) and to compare these with term control infants who were not admitted, in one calendar year. Infants in both NICU and control cohorts were enrolled in a 2-year follow-up study.
Methods:   All infants born over a 12-month period from February 2001 and admitted to the NICU, whose parents were domiciled in a defined geographical region, were eligible for study, together with every eighth healthy infant born at term and not admitted (to a total of 300). Comprehensive perinatal and neonatal data were collected for all enrolled infants.
Results:   A total of 387 NICU infants (86% eligible) were enrolled in the study together with 306 controls. Forty-one percent of NICU admissions were term and 40% were 33–36 weeks gestation. Term NICU infants were more likely to be born following induction of labour or by Caesarean section (34%, of which 50% were pre-labour) than control infants (18%, of which 32% were pre-labour). Infants of <28, 28–32, 33–36 and ≥37 weeks accounted for 74, 16, 7 and 3% of assisted ventilation days and 18, 31, 31 and 20% of total baby days, respectively.
Conclusions:   The need for assisted ventilation and length of NICU stay was inversely proportional to gestation. However, preterm infants of 28 weeks gestation and greater, as well as term infants, account for a high proportion of the NICU workload.     

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??Sepsis is one of important reasons for the death of children in intensive care unit. Although anti-infection and active symptomatic treatment are the key to treatment??whether nutrition support is rational and effective or not can also affect clinical prognosis. Sepsis children are in stress status??so nutrition support needs to meet the demand for energy??protein and other nutrients without increasing the burden of organs. Although intestinal function is damaged because of systemic infection??enteral nutrition??EN?? is still the first choice by actively creating conditions. If the EN is not enough??supplemental parenteral nutrition??PN?? should be given. In the process of nutrition support??immune nutrients can be added to regulate immune function and attenuate inflammation.     

早产儿肠内营养新概念

早产儿的营养支持是复杂和具有挑战性的系统工程。在早产儿肠内营养的实施过程中,应基于其生理特点,不仅从营养学而且从促进胃肠功能成熟的角度进行喂养,正确选择适合早产儿的喂养方法和乳类;不仅要关注营养对早期生长发育和对疾病反应方面的影响,更重要的是他们的远期健康。根据目前循证医学研究的证据来更新观念,走出误区,对于指导临床实践,改善早产儿的预后十分必要。     

Does selective evaluation of gastric aspirates in preterm infants influence time to full enteral feeding?

The use of routine gastric aspiration in the assessment of feeding intolerance is widespread in neonatal practice. Our article seeks to answer the clinical question, ‘In premature infants receiving feeds via nasogastric or orogastric tube [P], does routine evaluation of gastric aspirates [I] compared with selective evaluation of gastric aspirates [C] reduce the time taken to establish full feeds without complications [O]?’ Articles were identified through MEDLINE and reference lists from the sources found were reviewed for additional publications. Three papers were critically appraised and National Health and Medical Research Centre grades of level of evidence have been assigned to each. We found limited evidence to either support or reject the practice of routine gastric aspiration in preterm infants. There were no increases in the rates of significant complications in studies underpowered for this outcome. The decision to perform routine or selective gastric aspiration should be determined by individual centres. A large scale randomised controlled trial would be of significant benefit in determining the value of routine gastric aspiration in preterm infants.     

Parenteral lipids and the preterm infant: between Scylla and Charybdis

Intravenous lipid infusions are a valid option for a dense source of energy and essential fatty acids when the enteral route is unavailable. However, the use of these preparations in neonatal patients has been associated with metabolic concerns such as oxidative stress, and complications such as abnormal vascular tone, intravascular fat deposition and even fat embolism.

Conclusion: Metabolic issues related to nutrient accretion and noxious biological reactions should be considered when prescribing parenteral lipids with high PUFA content to the critically ill newborn infant.     

Neonatal Parenteral Nutrition with a Fat Emulsion Containing Medium Chain Triglycerides

ABSTRACT. Fifty-one newborn infants requiring parenteral nutrition were randomly assigned to receive a 50% medium chain triglyceride/50% long chain triglyceride lipid emulsion or the conventional 100% long chain triglyceride emulsion. Fat was administered daily for 20 hours, to a maximum of 3 g/kg/day. Plasma triglycerides, cholesterol, free fatty acids, ketones, glucose and capillary blood gases were monitored daily up to the sixth day of fat infusion. There were no significant differences in mean plasma triglycerides and free fatty acids between the two groups. No cases of hyperketonaemia were detected in the infants studied. Hyperglycaemic episodes were detected with similar frequency in both groups. The group who received the emulsion containing medium chain triglycerides had significantly lower mean plasma cholesterol values during the study. After 6 days of intravenous fat administration mean plasma cholesterol was more than 100% higher in the group which received the conventional emulsion. Differences in cholesterol content between the emulsions and a cholesterol lowering effect of medium chain triglycerides are possible explanations for these findings.     

Carnitine deficiency in premature infants receiving total parenteral nutrition

Carnitine plays a significant role in fatty acid utilization and ketone body production. Its availability is especially important during the immediate postnatal period. To determine whether low birth weight infants who cannot be orally fed are at risk of developing carnitine deficiency, we compared the carnitine blood levels and urinary excretion of 12 premature infants (Group A) receiving total parenteral nutrition (TPN) with those of 8 infants of similar gestational age and birth weight (Group B) who received carnitinecontaining milk formulas.In Group A, serum levels of total and free carnitine fell after 5 days of carnitine-deficient parenteral nutrition, and urinary excretion was significantly reduced. Serum levels and urinary excretion increased after the onset of oral feedings. The control Group B exhibited no significant changes in carnitine blood levels between the first and fifth days of life, but did show a later increase. Children in Group A had lower carnitine blood levels compared to those in Group B on the fifth day of life.These findings suggest that premature infants are not able to synthesize enough carnitine to maintain blood levels, and that carnitine deficiency can occur following TPN. Further investigation of metabolic consequences secondary to deficient carnitine intake in premature infants is necessary before carnitine supplementation should be considered.     

新生儿围手术期的营养支持

目的评估新生儿围手术期应用胃肠外营养(PN)支持的临床疗效,为营养支持的合理运用提供依据。方法对30例围手术期新生儿进行营养评估,营养不良者在肠内营养的基础上辅以PN,总结PN的组成、供给量、配制顺序、使用途径,并监测体质量、实验室指标、预后及防治并发症。结果 30例病例中,26例痊愈,4例好转。PN治疗后,患儿体质量、血浆白蛋白较前略有增加(P均<0.05),肝转氨酶、黄疸、血脂、尿素氮、前白蛋白、总胆汁酸均无明显变化。结论 PN支持方案安全、有效,实施方便;对于蛋白质营养不良新生儿围手术期的PN支持,应适当增加氨基酸的供给量。     

熊脱氧胆酸治疗早产儿胃肠外营养相关性胆汁淤积症的疗效

目的探讨熊脱氧胆酸(UDCA)对早产儿胃肠外营养相关性胆汁淤积(PNCA)的疗效。方法选取给予胃肠外营养并PNAC的早产儿65例为研究对象,根据不同UDCA治疗剂量,将其分成低剂量治疗组、高剂量治疗组、对照组。其中高剂量治疗组24例。UDCA 20 mg.kg-1.L-1,分2、3次服用。治疗前ALT(73.5±31.9)U.L-1,谷氨酰转肽酶(GGT)(107.5±27.9)U.L-1,总胆红素(TBIL)(217.0±24.3)μmol.L-1,结合胆红素(DBIL)(71.8±18.8)μmol.L-1,总胆汁酸(TBA)(61.5±18.2)μmol.L-1。低剂量治疗组18例。UDCA 10 mg.kg.L-1,分2、3次服用。ALT(76.8±32.1)U.L-1,GGT(116.8±29.8)U.L-1,TBIL(207.7±20.8)μmol.L-1,DBIL(71.0±20.1)μmol.L-1,TBA(63.9±19.8)μmol.L-1。对照组23例采用综合治疗,但未服用UDCA。ALT(70.3±33.8)U.L-1,GGT(108.3±30.8)U.L-1,TBIL(220.0±25.8)μmol.L-1,DBIL(67.9±19.7)μmol.L-1,TBA(63.5±22.6)μmol.L-1。治疗2～4周比较3组肝功能指标改善情况。结果高剂量治疗组3例因不能耐受高剂量转为低剂量治疗,统计时将其剔除。其他UDCA治疗患儿均未观察到有变应性皮疹、腹泻、血糖升高、白细胞升高等UDCA的不良反应。治疗前3组肝功能指标差异均无统计学意义(Pa>0.05),治疗2周、4周,高剂量治疗组与对照组ALT、GGT、TBIL、DBIL、TBA比较差异均有统计学意义(Pa<0.05),肝功能指标明显降低;低剂量治疗组与对照组指标比较差异均有统计学意义(Pa<0.05),肝功能指标明显降低;高、低剂量治疗组间各指标比较差异均无统计学意义(Pa>0.05)。结论各剂量UDCA治疗早产儿PNCA疗效显著且安全。     

微量喂养及机械通气对早产儿血促胃液素水平的影响

目的研究机械通气和微量喂养对早产儿血促胃液素(MTL)的影响和提高早产儿特别是危重儿胃肠动力途径,促进早产儿营养发育。方法将2004年11月~2006年1月西安市儿童医院NICU收治早产儿60例,随机分为微量喂养和常规喂养组,所有早产儿根据病情进行机械通气与非机械通气,分别测定生后1d后(开奶前)、3、7d空腹血浆MTL水平,喂养和通气对激素水平影响,采用析因分析,同时比较2种喂养方法胃肠动力的差异;激素测定采用放射免疫分析法。结果机械通气对MTL水平无影响,而微量喂养能显著增加MTL的分泌(P<0.05);2种干预因素之间互相无交互作用;微量喂养组过渡正常便时间、恢复到出生体质量时间及达全量肠内营养时间[(7.66±2.33)、(6.03±1.18)、(13.11±4.05)d],较常规喂养组[(9.96±2.48)、(8.08±1.18)、(19.21±5.58)d],均明显缩短(Pa<0.05);喂养不耐受率分别为13.9%和12.89%,无显著差异(χ2=0.47P>0.05);患儿无1例发生坏死性小肠结肠炎。结论微量喂养能显著提高早产儿胃肠动力,即使对机械通气早产儿施行也是安全有利的。     

Trophic feeding of the preterm infant

Trophic feeding is the practice of feeding minute volumes of enteral feeds in order to stimulate the development of the immature gastrointestinal tract of the preterm infant This paper reviews the randomized controlled studies that have examined the physiological and clinical responses to trophic feeding of the preterm infant. Trophic feeding alters gastrointestinal disaccharidase activity, hormone release, blood flow, motility and microbial flora. Clinical benefits appear to include improved milk tolerance, greater postnatal growth, reduced systemic sepsis and shorter hospital stay. There is currently no evidence of any adverse effects following trophic feeding.