显微外科治疗大及巨大垂体腺瘤手术入路的探讨

目的 探讨显微外科治疗大及巨大垂体腺瘤手术方法的选择。方法 对CT或MRI证实的56例大及巨大垂体腺瘤，采用经蝶入路或经颅入路两种手术方法，在显微镜下切除肿瘤。结果 经蝶手术18例，全切除12例，次全切除6例，无一例死亡。经颅采用翼点或经额入路显微手术治疗38例，经额手术25例，全切除22例，次全切2例，部分切除1例，其中1例死亡．原因不明；经翼点13例，全切除10例，次全切2例，部分切除1例，无一例死亡。结论 采用显微外科技术，针对肿瘤的特点选择不同的手术入路是提高垂体腺瘤全切率、降低死亡率的关键。     

经蝶辅助内窥镜切除大型垂体腺瘤

目的：介绍和评价1993年至2002年内经蝶入路显微外科辅助内窥镜切除138例大型垂体腺瘤的手术操作技术及经验。方法：138例大型垂体腺瘤，男性66例，女性72例。手术采用经蝶显微外科辅助内窥镜。结果：本组全切肿瘤109例，占78.9％。结论：经蝶显微手术仍是一种较为实用手术，显微外科辅助内窥镜可提高大型垂体腺瘤的全切率。     

影响巨大垂体腺瘤手术疗效的几个问题探讨

目的 介绍56例巨大垂体腺瘤显微外科手术治疗经验，探讨影响手术疗效的几个问题。方法 回顾性分析56例巨大垂体腺瘤病人的临床资料。据肿瘤的生长方向及部位分为四型，据此分别采用经蝶、经额下、额下经蝶、扩大经蝶、扩大额下硬膜外、额下一翼点等10种入路进行显微手术。重点介绍手术入路的选择及注意事项。结果 56例巨大垂体腺瘤全切29例，近全切20例，大部分切除7例，无死亡。结论 依据巨大垂体腺瘤的不同位置及生长方向选择适当的手术入路、掌握手术时机以及术后辅以放疗是提高手术疗效的重要手段。     

垂体腺瘤的显微外科治疗

目的探讨外科治疗垂体腺瘤显微手术方法的选择。方法对CT或MRI证实的65例垂体腺瘤，采用经蝶入路或经翼点入路两种手术方法，在显微镜下切除肿瘤。结果经蝶手术44例，全切除29例，次全切除15例；无1例死亡。经翼点入路显微手术21例，全切除13例，次全切5例，部分切除3例；死亡1例(死于多器官功能衰竭)。结论采用显微外科技术，针对肿瘤的特点选择不同的手术入路是提高垂体腺瘤全切率、降低死亡率的关键。     

大型和巨大型垂体腺瘤经蝶显微外科治疗的疗效及处理策略

目的 探讨大型和巨大型垂体腺瘤手术入路的选择和处理策略。方法 回顾性总结1985—2001年收治的302例大型和巨大型垂体腺瘤临床资料和经蝶手术切除的疗效。结果 显微镜下全切除188例(62．3％)，次全切除68例，部分和大部分切除46例。手术并发症多为一过性，死亡5例(1、66％)。术后动态随诊CT(MRI)173例，无肿瘤残余92例(53．2％)。随诊期(平均22．5个月)视力、视野改善190例(95．5％)，激素分泌性垂体腺瘤相应激素水平大部分正常或不同程度下降。结论 绝大部分本类型肿瘤均可首选经蝶手术切除。术后定期随诊，如残余肿瘤明显或再生长、复发，根据具体情况经颅或再次经蝶手术和(或)辅以放疗和溴隐亭等药物治疗。     

经蝶窦显微手术治疗垂体巨腺瘤：附54例报告

报告５４例直径≥４ｃｍ的垂体巨腺瘤经蝶窦显微手术治疗结果。肿瘤近全切除４５例，大部分切除５例，部分切除４例，无死亡。作者体会对垂体巨腺瘤而言，经蝶窦显微手术不但比经颅手术安全，而且切除范围也比经颅手术彻底，对视觉功能的改善更优于经颅手术。     

扩大双侧额下联合经蝶入路显微切除巨大型垂体腺瘤

目的探讨扩大双侧额下联合经蝶入路显微手术切除巨大型垂体腺瘤的临床疗效。方法采用扩大双侧额下入路并联合硬膜外经蝶窦显微手术切除13例巨大型垂体腺瘤,对侵入蝶窦内及中上斜坡区的肿瘤,由硬膜外剥离暴露并磨除蝶骨平台切除肿瘤。结果13例巨大型垂体腺瘤全切除6例,近全切除5例,大部分切除2例,无重残及死亡病例。结论经该入路行显微手术能有效地提高巨大型垂体腺瘤的全切除率。     

垂体腺瘤的远期疗效分析和治疗选择探讨

目的　分析影响垂体腺瘤预后的因素并探讨治疗方法的选择。方法　对经手术治疗的３０８ 例垂体腺瘤中的１５５ 例进行了２ 年以上的随访和远期疗效评价,分别就肿瘤大小、肿瘤类型、手术方式、肿瘤切除范围以及放射治疗对预后的影响作了分析。结果　垂体微腺瘤和小腺瘤的疗效优于大腺瘤和巨大腺瘤,分泌性腺瘤的疗效优于非分泌性腺瘤,肿瘤全切除的疗效优于次全切除和部分切除,大腺瘤经蝶入路的疗效优于经额入路。结论　肿瘤大小和切除范围是影响预后的主要因素。微、小腺瘤选择经蝶入路最佳,大腺瘤尽量采用经蝶入路,巨大腺瘤则是以鞍上下联合入路为宜。     

经蝶窦显微手术治疗垂体巨腺瘤(附34例报告)

目的 报告34例直径≥4cm的垂体巨腺瘤经蝶窦显微手术治疗方法和结果。方法 总结垂体巨腺瘤的临床表现，神经影像学特征及显微手术方法和术后处理。结果 肿瘤近全切除28例，大部切除4例，部分切除2例，无死亡。结论 本会对垂体巨腺瘤而言，经蝶窦显微手术不但比经颅手术安全，而且切除范围也比经颅手术彻底，对视觉功能的改善更优于经颅手术，鞍底的修复亦非常重要。     

巨大垂体腺瘤二次经蝶手术30例分析

目的探讨巨大垂体腺瘤二次经蝶手术策略、技巧及术后并发症处理方法。方法回顾性分析30例巨大垂体腺瘤二次经蝶手术病人的临床资料,对手术切除程度、术后症状、激素水平变化及并发症处理等进行总结和分析。结果术后病理结果显示：无功能性腺瘤22例,其中无功能性促肾上腺皮质激素腺瘤1例;生长激素腺瘤8例。功能性垂体腺瘤病人术后激素水平均不同程度下降。术后并发一过性尿崩症9例,脑脊液鼻漏4例,无死亡或严重并发症病例。术后3个月行MRI复查17例,肿瘤全切除4例,次全切除7例。部分切除6例。结论对单纯经蝶或经颅入路均无法一期全切除或术后随访肿瘤复发的巨大垂体腺瘤病例．二次经蝶手术应作为首选治疗方法。     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Neonatal Seizures: Problems in Diagnosis and Classification

Summary: The clinical identification of neonatal seizures is critical for the recognition of brain dysfunction; however, diagnosis is often difficult because of the poorly organized and varied nature of these behaviors. Current classification systems are limited in their ability to communicate motor, autonomic, and electroencephalo-graphic features of seizures precisely and to provide a basis for uniform effective diagnosis, therapy, and determination of prognosis. Recent investigations of neonates, utilizing bedside electroencephalographic/polygraphic/ video monitoring techniques, have provided the basis for improved diagnosis and classification of seizures in the newborn. These studies have demonstrated that not all clinical phenomena currently considered to be seizures require electrocortical epileptiform activity for their initiation or elaboration. In addition, the specific clinical character of the phenomena considered to be seizures, the clinical state of the infant, and the character of the EEG indicate the probable pathophysiological mechanisms involved and suggest probable etiologies, prognosis, and therapy. Similarities between animal models that demonstrate reflex physiology and neonates with motor automatisms and tonic posturing suggest that these clinical behaviors may not be epileptic in origin but, rather, primitive movements of progression and posture mediated by brainstem mechanisms. Although not all clinical behaviors currently considered to be neonatal seizures may have similar pathophysiological mechanisms, they are clinically significant because they all indicate brain dysfunction.     

Valproate Monotherapy in the Management of Generalized and Partial Seizures

Summary: For decades, therapeutic tradition has promoted the concept of polypharmacy in the management of epilepsy. In recent years, however, studies have shown that, for most patients, monotherapy can provide comparable or better seizure control than administration of multiple anticonvulsants, while diminishing the potential for adverse reactions, drug interactions, and poor compliance. Valproate is an important monotherapeutic agent that is highly effective in the control of idiopathic primary and secondarily generalized epilepsies, and partial seizures that do not generalize. Comparative studies have found that valproate is at least as effective as phenytoin and carbamazepine in the treatment of generalized and partial seizures. Given the similar efficacy, other factors such as pharmacokinetics and side effects may therefore determine anticonvulsant selection for monotherapy.     

Un nouveau cadre conceptuel de travail pour la psychiatrie

In an attempt to place psychiatric thinking and the training of future psychiatrists more centrally into the context of modern biology, the author outlines the beginnings of a new intellectual framework for psychiatry that derives from current biological thinking about the relationship of mind to brain. The purpose of this framework is twofold. First, it is designed to emphasize that the professional requirements for future psychiatrists will demand a greater knowledge of the structure and functioning of the brain than is currently available in most training programs. Second, it is designed to illustrate that the unique domain which psychiatry occupies within academic medicine, the analysis of the interaction between social and biological determinants of behavior, can best be studied by also having a full understanding of the biological components of behavior.     

Special Pharmacokinetic Considerations in Children

Summary: Pediatric patients have greater degrees of pharmacokinetic variability and unpredictability than adults. This variability results from the effects of pharmacogenetics, age and growth, prior and current comedication, and disease. Newborns with seizures have the least predictable dosage requirements, and their needs change as drug-eliminating mechanisms mature in the neonatal period. Infants have the highest relative capacities to eliminate antiepileptics of any age group and require the largest relative doses. In addition to age-related trends, children demonstrate the same drug-specific, pharmacokinetic phenomena that adults do, including nonlinear phenytoin elimination, nonlinear valproate binding, and autoinduction of carbamazepine. Intercurrent illness and drug interactions further modify the age-related pharmacokinetic patterns in children and make dosage requirements even more unpredictable. Recent studies have shown that febrile illness can affect drug elimination, sometimes decreasing drug levels by 50% or more. Intermittent treatment with benzodiazepines administered either orally or rectally can be an important adjunct and help minimize this type of problem for children with marginally controlled epilepsy. Intermittent benzodiazepines are also helpful for children who have febrile seizures and who need only occasional antiepileptic protection.