The importance of injury as a cause of death in sub-Saharan Africa: results of a community-based study in Tanzania

This paper describes rates and causes of injury deaths among community members in three districts of the United Republic of Tanzania. A population-based study was carried out in two rural districts and one urban area in Tanzania. Deaths occurring in the study areas were monitored prospectively during a period of six years. Censuses were conducted annually in the rural areas and biannually in the urban area to determine the denominator populations. Cause-specific death rates and Years of Life Lost (YLL) due to injury were calculated for the three study areas. During a 6 year period (1992-1998), 5047 deaths were recorded in Dar es Salaam, 9339 in Hai District and 11 155 in Morogoro Rural District. Among all ages, deaths due to injuries accounted for 5% of all deaths in Dar es Salaam, 8% in Hai and 5% in Morogoro. The age-standardised injury death rates among men were approximately three times higher than among women in all study areas. Transport accidents were the commonest cause of mortality in all injury-related deaths in the three project areas, except for females in Hai District, where it ranked second after intentional self-harm. We conclude that injury deaths impose a considerable burden in Tanzania. Strategies should be strengthened in the prevention and control of avoidable premature deaths due to injuries.     

Maternal mortality in a rural district of southeastern Tanzania: an application of the sisterhood method

BACKGROUND: Deaths from maternal causes represent the leading cause of death among women of reproductive age in most developing countries. It is estimated that the highest risk occurs in Africa, with 20% of world births but 40% of the world maternal deaths. The level of maternal mortality is difficult to assess especially in countries without an adequate vital registration system. Indirect techniques are an attractive cost-effective tool to provide estimates of orders of magnitude for maternal mortality. METHOD: The level of maternal mortality estimated by the sisterhood method is presented for a rural district in the Morogoro Region of Southeastern Tanzania and the main causes of maternal death are studied. Information from region-specific data using the sisterhood method is compared to data from other sources. RESULTS: The maternal mortality ratio (MMR) was 448 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births (95%CI : 363-534 deaths per 100,000 live births). Maternal causes accounted for 19% of total mortality in this age group. One in 39 women who survive until reproductive age will die before age 50 due to maternal causes. The main cause of death provided by hospital data was puerperal sepsis (35%) and postpartum haemorrhage (17%); this is compatible with the main causes reported for maternal death in settings with high levels of maternal mortality, and similar to data for other regions in Tanzania. The sisterhood method provides data comparable with others, together with a cost-effective and reliable estimate for the determination of the magnitude of maternal mortality in the rural Kilombero District.     

1992～2010年云南省孕产妇死亡变化趋势及影响因素

目的:了解云南省孕产妇死亡原因及制约死亡率下降的影响因素,为政府制订干预措施提供依据。方法:通过常规报表及监测资料对云南省1992～2010年的孕产妇死亡相关资料进行分析。结果:1992～2010年的19年间云南省孕产妇死亡率有明显下降,由1995年的149.6/10万下降至2010年的37.3/10万,下降75.1%;但存在较大的地区差异,农村约为城市的6.6倍,内地县市和边境县市分别是城市的6.1倍和9.8倍,内地县市和边境县市死亡率明显较高,且下降速度较慢;死因顺位依次为:产科出血、合并内科疾病、妊娠期高血压疾病及产褥感染;产后出血是云南省孕产妇死亡的主要原因,占产科出血的77.3%;孕产期保健服务利用率偏低及县乡两级产科人员知识技能不足是孕产妇死亡的主要影响因素。结论:加大县乡产科能力建设力度,提高产科服务质量及完善流动孕产妇医疗保障体系,确保流动孕产妇异地享受基本公共卫生服务和住院分娩补助等惠民政策,妥善解决边境地区跨国婚姻的孕产妇保健等是进一步降低云南省孕产妇死亡率的重要保证。     

Maternal Mortality Decline in the Kassena-Nankana District of Northern Ghana

Objective In the absence of an adequate vital registration system in Ghana, the Navrongo demographic surveillance system (NDSS) established in 1993 presents a viable alternative to monitor, in a poor rural district, the UN Millennium Development Goal on maternal health (MDG) of reducing maternal mortality by 75% between 1990 and 2015. Methods Of the 518 women aged 12–49 years identified in the NDSS database to have died in the Kassena-Nankana district in the period January 2002–December 2004, spouses or family members completed verbal autopsy interviews for 516 female deaths. Results Of the 516 female deaths, 45 were identified as maternal deaths. 71% of the maternal deaths were attributed to direct maternal causes while 29% were due to indirect maternal causes. Abortion-related deaths were the most frequent cause of maternal deaths. The maternal mortality ratio for the period 2002–2004 was 373 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births indicating a 40% reduction of maternal mortality from the 1995–1996 level of 637 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births. However, the health-facility based maternal mortality ratio in the district (which excludes maternal deaths outside health facilities) was 141 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births for the period 2002–2004. Conclusion This district may be on track to achieve the MDG on maternal health. Ultimately, strengthening vital registration systems to provide timely information to policymakers should supersede the other methods of measuring maternal mortality.     

Maternal mortality in rural Bangladesh: the Jamalpur District

During the 12-month period from September 1982 to August 1983, 9,317 live births and 58 maternal deaths were recorded in Melanda and Islampur upazilas in the Jamalpur district of rural Bangladesh, giving a maternal mortality rate of 62.3 per 10,000 live births. Maternal mortality was positively related to maternal age and parity, with the mortality risk rising very sharply beyond age 35 years, and beyond parity four among women aged 25-34 years in particular. The most common causes of maternal death were eclampsia (20.7 percent), septic abortion (20.7 percent), postpartum sepsis (10.3 percent), obstructed labor (10.3 percent), and antepartum and postpartum hemorrhage (10.3 percent). These findings indicate that family planning, by decreasing the likelihood of pregnancy after age 35 and parity four, can help reduce the proportion of women at risk of maternal mortality.     

Problem of mortality in women of reproductive age in rural area of Haryana

To learn the extent of mortality among women of reproductive age, data was analyzed on causes of death, as reported by anganwadi workers and heads of households, for all maternal deaths in 1992 in Haryana, India. The community was comprised of 300,907 persons and 58,961 women (19.6%) of reproductive age. 9894 live births were recorded, which is higher than the national average. 219 women died in 1992 from maternal and nonmaternal causes (3.7 per 1000 women). In the study blocks (Rohtak, Chiri, and Kathure) the range of mortality was from 3.4 to 4.1 per 1000. 78.5% (172 deaths) were considered nonmaternal deaths. Mortality was 20.9% among mothers 15-20 years old, 25.6% among mothers 20-25 years old, and 18.6% among mothers 25-30 years old. 65.1% of women died at home. 58.1% sought medical care prior to death. 1.2% of deaths were certified. 36.7% of deaths were to literate women, and the remaining 63.3% were illiterate. Causes of nonmaternal death included accidents, respiratory disorders, poisoning, and digestive disorders. Slightly over 20% of accidental deaths were due to burns and suicide. 21.46% (47 deaths) were maternal deaths (475 per 100,000 live births). Maternal mortality ranged from 46 to 488 in the 3 blocks. Rohtak had the highest maternal mortality. Maternal mortality was highest among women 30-44 years old (996 per 100,000), followed by women 15-20 years old (575 per 100,000). 21.3% died during labor and delivery, and 68% died during the postpartum period. 57.4% died at home, and 25.5% died at the Medical College Hospital. 61.7% used prenatal services. 36.2% did not seek medical care prior to their death. 55.3% of deliveries were by trained birth attendants. 25.5% died with their first births. 51.0% of women with a birth interval under 3 years died. Maternal mortality was distributed by cause as follows: postpartum hemorrhage (17.0%), puerperal sepsis (17.0%), anemia (12.8%), preeclampsia and eclampsia (14.9%), obstructed labor (6.4%), hemorrhage antepartum (4.25%), abortions and MTP (10.6%), and indirect causes (12.8%). Improvement is needed in literacy, contraception, women's empowerment, and prenatal care in order to reach the goal of reduced maternal mortality by the year 2000.     

Contextual determinants of maternal mortality in rural Pakistan

Maternal mortality is high in Pakistan, particularly in the rural areas which have poor access to health services. We investigated the risk factors associated with maternal mortality in sixteen rural districts of Balochistan and the North-West Frontier (NWFP) provinces of Pakistan. We designed a nested case–control study comprising 261 cases (maternal deaths reported during last five years) and 9135 controls (women who survived a pregnancy during last five years). Using contextual analysis, we estimated the interactions between the biological risk factors of maternal mortality and the district-level indicators of health services. Women under 19 or over 39 yr of age, those having their first birth, and those having a previous history of fetal loss were at greater risk of maternal death. Staffing patterns of peripheral health facilities in the district and accessibility of essential obstetric care (EOC) were significantly associated with maternal mortality. These indicators also modified the effects of the biological risk factors of maternal mortality. For example, nulliparous women living in the under-served districts were at greater risk than those living in the better-served districts. Our results are consistent with several studies which have pointed out the role of health services in the causation of maternal mortality. Many such studies have implicated distance to hospital (an indicator of access to EOC) and lack of prenatal care as major determinants of maternal mortality. We conclude that better staffing of peripheral health facilities and improved access to EOC could reduce the risk of maternal mortality among women in rural Balochistan and the NWFP.     

中国2000--2005年孕产妇死亡趋势分析

目的 了解2000-2005年中国孕产妇死亡发生的主要特征、死亡率变化趋势、主要死亡原因及其变化.方法 在全国31个省、自治区、直辖市孕产妇死亡监测网内采用以人群为基础的流行病学调查方法.结果 2000-2005年中国农村孕产妇死亡率高于城市,边远地区高于内地、沿海;全国孕产妇死亡率由53.0/10万下降到47.6/10万,农村由67.2/10万下降到59.2/10万,城市由28.8/10万下降到27.6/10万,下降幅度分别为10.2%、11.9%和4.2%.2000年全国孕产妇死亡前3位死因为产科出血、妊娠期高血压和羊水栓塞,2005年前3位是产科出血、心脏病和妊娠期高血压,但产科出血始终是第一死因,导致产科出血的主要原因是胎盘滞留、宫缩乏力和子宫破裂.结论 2000-2005年全国孕产妇死亡率无趋势变化,主要死因是产科出血.降低农村及边远地区孕产妇死亡率和提高诊治产科出血基本技能是实现<中国妇女发展纲要(2000-2010年)>降低孕产妇死亡率目标的关键.     

Community-based surveillance of maternal deaths in rural Ghana

Objective

To examine the feasibility and effectiveness of community-based maternal mortality surveillance in rural Ghana, where most information on maternal deaths usually comes from retrospective surveys and hospital records.

Methods

In 2013, community-based surveillance volunteers used a modified reproductive age mortality survey (RAMOS 4+2) to interview family members of women of reproductive age (13–49 years) who died in Bosomtwe district in the previous five years. The survey comprised four yes–no questions and two supplementary questions. Verbal autopsies were done if there was a positive answer to at least one yes–no question. A mortality review committee established the cause of death.

Findings

Survey results were available for 357 women of reproductive age who died in the district. A positive response to at least one yes–no question was recorded for respondents reporting on the deaths of 132 women. These women had either a maternal death or died within one year of termination of pregnancy. Review of 108 available verbal autopsies found that 64 women had a maternal or late maternal death and 36 died of causes unrelated to childbearing. The most common causes of death were haemorrhage (15) and abortion (14). The resulting maternal mortality ratio was 357 per 100 000 live births, compared with 128 per 100 000 live births derived from hospital records.

Conclusion

The community-based mortality survey was effective for ascertaining maternal deaths and identified many deaths not included in hospital records. National surveys could provide the information needed to end preventable maternal mortality by 2030.     

1996-2010年全国孕产妇死亡率变化趋势

目的 了解1996-2010年全国孕产妇死亡率和主要死亡原因的变化趋势及地区的差异变化。方法 采用以人群为基础的全国孕产妇死亡监测网的数据,1996-2005年覆盖了内地31个省、自治区、直辖市的176个监测区（县）,2006年后扩大至336个区（县）,统计1996-2010年全国不同时间、不同地区孕产妇死亡率、死因别死亡率、下降幅度和年平均下降速率。应用Cochran-Armitage趋势检验及Poisson检验,对1996-2010年的孕产妇死亡率、死因构成及地区间差异的变化趋势进行分析。结果 全国孕产妇死亡率从1996年的64.7/10万下降到2010年的30.0/10万,下降53.2％;2010年农村孕产妇死亡率（30.1/10万）高于城市（29.7/10万）,西部（46.1/10万）高于中部（29.1/10万）及东部地区（17.8/10万）。东、中、西部地区孕产妇死亡率下降幅度分别为37.76％、57.02％和66.27％。地区间差异在逐渐减少,2006-2010年间,农村孕产妇死亡率下降为城市的1.82倍,西部地区为东部地区的3.0倍。产科出血死亡的构成比从1996年的47.9％下降到2010年的27.8％,但仍是导致全国孕产妇死亡的首要因素。结论 全国孕产妇死亡率呈下降趋势,地区间孕产妇死亡率仍存在差异,但差异逐年减小,农村和西部地区仍是孕产妇死亡干预的重点;产科出血仍是各地区的主要死亡原因。     

Differences in risk of mortality under 1 year of age between rural and urban areas: an ecological study

OBJECTIVE: To investigate differences in risk of categories and causes of death before 1 year of age between rural and urban areas. METHODS: Population-based ecological study using Poisson regression analysis of data from all enumeration districts in Wales. Data included all 243,223 registrable births to women resident in Wales, 809 therapeutic and spontaneous abortions, 1302 stillbirths and 1418 infant deaths occurring between 1993 and 1999. MAIN RESULTS: The relative risk of mortality in rural areas compared with urban areas for all deaths before 1 year of age was 0.89 (95% confidence interval 0.82, 0.98, P=0.02). The risk of mortality in rural areas was significantly lower than in urban areas for all categories of deaths occurring after 7 days of life. The relative risk of death due to infection was significantly lower in rural areas compared with urban areas (P=0.04), with similar results for deaths due to sudden infant death syndrome (P=0.03). After adjusting for social deprivation, there were no significant differences in the risk of death between rural and urban areas. CONCLUSIONS: While there were significant differences in crude risk between rural and urban enumeration districts for some causes and age groups before 1 year, after adjusting for social deprivation, these differences were not significant. The lack of significant interaction between rurality and deprivation indicated that the relationship between social deprivation and death before 1 year of age was not significantly different in rural areas compared with urban areas. Collaborative public health programmes to tackle deprivation are necessary in both rural and urban areas.     

National maternal mortality ratio in Egypt halved between 1992-93 and 2000

Two surveys of maternal mortality conducted in Egypt, in 1992-93 and in 2000, collected data from a representative sample of health bureaus covering all of Egypt, except for five frontier governorates which were covered only by the later survey, using the vital registration forms. The numbers of maternal deaths were determined and interviews conducted. The medical causes of death and avoidable factors were determined. Results showed that the maternal mortality ratio (MMR) had dropped by 52% within that period (from 174 to 84/100,000 live births). The National Maternal Mortality Survey in 1992-93 (NMMS) revealed that the metropolitan areas and Upper Egypt had a higher MMR than Lower Egypt. In response to these results, the Egyptian Ministry of Health and Population (MOHP) intensified the efforts of its Safe Motherhood programmes in Upper Egypt with the result that the regional situation had reversed in 2000. Consideration of the intermediate and outcome indicators suggests that the greatest effect of maternal health interventions was on the death-related avoidable factors "substandard care by health providers" and "delays in recognizing problems or seeking medical care". The enormous improvements in these areas are certainly due in part to extensive training, revised curricula, the publication of medical protocols and services standards, the upgrading of facilities, and successful community outreach programmes and media campaigns. The impact on the utilization of antenatal care (ANC) has been less successful. Other areas that remain problematic are inadequate supplies of blood, drugs and equipment. Although the number of maternal deaths linked to haemorrhage has been drastically reduced, it remains the primary cause. The drop in maternal mortality in the 1990s in response to Safe Motherhood programmes was impressive and the ability to tailor interventions based on the data from the NMMS of 1992-93 and 2000 was clearly demonstrated. To ensure the continuing availability of information to guide and evaluate programmes for reducing maternal mortality, an Egyptian national maternal mortality surveillance system is being developed.     

Cause-specific adult mortality: evidence from community-based surveillance--selected sites, Tanzania, 1992-1998

Mortality data are a standard information resource to guide public health action. Because Tanzania did not have a representative mortality surveillance system, in 1992 the Adult Morbidity and Mortality Project (AMMP) was established by the Muhimbili University College of Health Sciences, the Ministry of Health of Tanzania (MOH), and the University of Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom. The purpose of the surveillance system is to provide cause-specific death rates among adults in three areas of Tanzania and to link community-based mortality surveillance to evidence-based planning for health care. This report describes the results of AMMP surveillance during 1992-1998, which indicated that human immunodeficiency virus infection/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) was the leading cause of death reported by decedents' relatives and caretakers for adults of both sexes in all study areas, and suggests that a range of other causes of death exist across the three surveillance sites.     

Urban Health in Tanzania: Questioning the Urban Advantage

How are health inequalities articulated across urban and rural spaces in Tanzania? This research paper explores the variations, differences, and inequalities, in Tanzania’s health outcomes—to question both the idea of an urban advantage in health and the extent of urban–rural inequalities in health. The three research objectives aim to understand: what are the health differences (morbidity and mortality) between Tanzania’s urban and rural areas; how are health inequalities articulated within Tanzania’s urban and rural areas; and how are health inequalities articulated across age groups for rural–urban Tanzania? By analyzing four national datasets of Tanzania (National Census, Household Budget Survey, Demographic Health Survey, and Health Demographic Surveillance System), this paper reflects on the outcomes of key health indicators across these spaces. The datasets include national surveys conducted from 2009 to 2012. The results presented showcase health outcomes in rural and urban areas vary, and are unequal. The risk of disease, life expectancy, and unhealthy behaviors are not the same for urban and rural areas, and across income groups. Urban areas show a disadvantage in life expectancy, HIV prevalence, maternal mortality, children’s morbidity, and women’s BMI. Although a greater level of access to health facilities and medicine is reported, we raise a general concern of quality and availability in health services; what data sources are being used to make decisions on urban–rural services, and the wider determinants of urban health outcomes. The results call for a better understanding of the sociopolitical and economic factors contributing to these inequalities. The urban, and rural, populations are diverse; therefore, we need to look at service quality, and use, in light of inequality: what services are being accessed; by whom; for what reasons?     

Mortality rates in rural and urban areas of Brittany

Relative differences in environment, behaviour, social composition as well as access to health care tend to suggest that levels of health may vary between urban and rural areas. The aim of this study was to identify rural-urban variations in mortality risks in the region of Brittany for the period from 1988 to 1992. The definition of urban and rural areas used adhered to that of the zoning of urban areas established by the INSEE (the National Statistical Office). The amalgamation of all causes of standardised mortality ratios (SMR) show only a moderately increased risk in the rural areas compared with the overall regional level (+4% in men, +5-7% in women). The analysis of cause specific SMRs display higher rural mortality for cardiovascular diseases and external causes of death, road traffic accidents in particular (+24% in men). Among all specific causes investigated, only lung cancer mortality risk appears to be higher in urban areas.     

Postpartum Haemorrhage and Eclampsia: Differences in Knowledge and Care-seeking Behaviour in Two Districts of Bangladesh

In high- and low-performing districts of Bangladesh, the study explored the demand-side of maternal healthcare by looking at differences in perceived knowledge and care-seeking behaviours of women in relation to postpartum haemorrhage or eclampsia. Haemorrhage and eclampsia are two major causes of maternal mortality in Bangladesh. The study was conducted during July 2006–December 2007. Both postpartum bleeding and eclampsia were recognized by women of different age-groups as severe and life-threatening obstetric complications. However, a gap existed between perception and actual care-seeking behaviours which could contribute to the high rate of maternal deaths associated with these conditions. There were differences in care-seeking practices among women in the two different areas of Bangladesh, which may reflect sociocultural differences, disparities in economic and educational opportunities, and a discrimination in the availability of care.Key words: Beliefs, Care-seeking behaviour, Maternal mortality, Postpartum haemorrhage, Eclampsia, Qualitative research, Bangladesh     

Knowledge, attitudes and practices of women towards antenatal care: rural-urban comparison

Pregnancy is a period at which a woman's health is placed at risk. However, health care professionals providing antenatal care (ANC) can reduce that risk by monitoring women' health regularly arid offering both preventive and curative services. Worldwide, an estimated 515,000 women die of pregnancy-related causes, a rate of over 1,400 maternal deaths each year. The overwhelming majority of these deaths and complications occur in developing countries. Effective ANC, appropriate emergency treatment of complications and competent referral level encompass the most effective answers to reduction of maternal deaths. Data related to rural/urban difference concerning knowledge, attitudes and practices of women towards ANC in Alexandria are lacking. The present study is aimed at comparing knowledge, attitudes and practices towards ANC between rural and urban women in Alexandria and also, to identify certain related factors. A cross-sectional, community- based house-to-house survey was conducted in Alexandria using cluster-sampling technique (30 clusters from urban areas and30 clusters from rural areas). Each cluster consisted of 5 women who had given birth within the last 2 years preceding the survey. Urban women had a higher mean total score for their knowledge on ANC than their counterparts of rural women, with a statistical significant difference (11.23 +/- 2.91 and 6.59 +/- 4.14, respectively and Z = 9.73, P < 0.001). Also, Urban women had a significantly higher mean total score for their attitudes towards ANC compared to the rural women (10.66 +/- 2.33 versus 8.55 +/- 2.39, P < 0.001). Concerning maternal practices, the current study revealed rural/urban disparities as significantly higher proportions of urban women had proper practices during antenatal period in their last pregnancy as regards utilization, earlier initiation and frequent visits of antenatal care. On the other hand, nearly half of urban women (45.3%) had not been vaccinated during their last pregnancy compared to only 24.7% of rural ones, (P < 0.001).     

Operational factors of maternal mortality in Zimbabwe

Most studies on maternal mortality have looked at the directclinical causes and the distribution of actual rates. Much lessattention has been given to prevailing health care systems orcommunity factors associated with such deaths. A case-controlstudy design using incident cases was used to identify the magnitudeof maternal deaths and community and health care operationalfactors in both an urban and a rural setting in Zimbabwe. Thematernal mortality ratio for the rural setting was 168 per 100000 live births and that for the urban setting was 85 per 100000 live births. For the rural setting, the major direct causesof death were haemorrhage (24.8%), abortion complications (15.2%),puerperal sepsis (13.3%), and eclampsia (4.8%). For the urbansetting they were eclampsia (26.2%), abortion complications(23.0%), puerperal sepsis (14.8%) and haemorrhage (9.8%). Whereas rural-urban variations in maternal mortality were observed,inter-rural district variations were also apparent, especiallywith poor medical resources, poor communication and delayedinterventions. Risk factors for maternal mortality were presentat each of the various levels of care. Lack of antenatal care(ANC) had a significant Odds Ratio (OR 10.7 rural and 4.6 urban)contribution to maternal mortality. When abortions and ectopicswere excluded the OR for absent ANC was 4.1 (rural) and 2.6(urban). Lack of timely transport to nearest clinic or hospitaladversely affected pregnancy outcome in both rural and urbansettings. Despite delivery place planning, predisposing healthconditions and some danger signals, few of the women utilizedthe venue originally planned for delivery. Health education, community sensitization and teaching on risksignal awareness as well as health care delivery system strengtheningare recommended for reducing the high maternal mortality rates. ⁴Includes: Dr F Ashworth, Prof Mtimavalye, Dr Chatora, Dr PNhindiri, Dr Chiwora, Sister Nyangani, Sister Mujaji, SisterMakahamadzem, Mr Mandisodza, Mr Mashu, Sister Nyoni, Mr Dauramanzi,Mrs Dengu and the late Dr Chimbira     

Epidemiological profile of maternal deaths in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: 2004-2007

This study analyzed the epidemiological profile of maternal deaths that occurred from 2004 to 2007 in Rio Grande do Sul, by means of Maternal Mortality Rates and Specific Maternal Mortality Ratio. Data was obtained from the Health Information System database and 323 maternal deaths were identified. In order to analyze indicators, Poisson regression and statistical tests were carried out. A decrease in maternal mortality rates (0.98) was identified, although there was no difference in estimate measures (CI95% 0.87-1.10). Maternal deaths were more frequent in women who were over 40 years old, had low schooling, black skin and no partners. The period of highest risk of maternal death was during pregnancy and birth, and the main direct causes were arterial hypertension and bleeding. Maternal mortality is an important issue to be confronted and reduced, given most maternal deaths could have been avoided.