Observer variance within families: confluence among maternal,paternal and child ratings

This paper examines patterns of agreement among different informants within the same family in order to determine the effects of maternal distress on the ratings of mothers and fathers. Mothers, fathers and children from a community cohort of 216 families with 13 to 15 years olds reported children's difficulties and strengths measured by the Rutter Revised Scale. The absolute scores on the children's ratings were higher than those of the fathers and mothers. The odds ratios for agreements between fathers and children ranged between 1.70 and 4.01 and for mother‐child agreement between 0.83 and 3.40. There were no significant differences between the mothers and fathers in the extent of their agreement with their children. When mothers were emotionally distressed, there was a significantly higher level of emotional disturbance in the children according to the ratings of both mothers and fathers, but not according to children's ratings. There is value in obtaining paternal, as well as maternal and child, ratings of children's behaviour. Maternal distress affects the ratings of both parents, but not those of the children; the reasons for these effects require further study but they cannot be assumed to reflect rating bias. Copyright © 2001 Whurr Publishers Ltd.     

A study of parent ratings of internalizing and externalizing problem behavior in 12-year-old twins

OBJECTIVE: Studies on 3-, 7-, and 10-year-old twins' internalizing and externalizing problems have emphasized the importance of understanding sources of agreement and disagreement between maternal and paternal ratings. A psychometric model that assumes that each parent assesses rater-specific aspects of the child's behavior provided the best explanation for parental disagreement. This study investigates two models that have been used to explain the agreement and disagreement between mothers and fathers in the ratings of their children. METHOD: Child Behavior Checklists filled in by mothers and fathers were collected for a sample of 1,481 twelve-year-old twin pairs. Genetic and environmental influences on internalizing and externalizing problems were estimated using models that corrected for rater bias, rater-specific effects, and unreliability. RESULTS: The psychometric model fitted the data significantly better than a rater bias model. Significant influences of genetic, shared, and nonshared environmental factors were found for internalizing and externalizing behavior. Parent-specific views, rater bias, and unreliability were significant. CONCLUSIONS: The best-fitting model implies that disagreement between parents is due to the fact that mothers and fathers provide information from their own perspective. This information should be seen as important and adding to the diagnostic formulation rather than as a point of disagreement. The finding that internalizing and externalizing problems are influenced by genetic and environmental factors fosters the understanding that it is the interaction of nature and nurture that puts children at risk for common behavioral disorders.     

It takes two! Exploring sex differences in parenting neurobiology and behaviour

Parents lay the foundation for their children's socio‐emotional experiences by sensitively responding to their needs. The hormonal and neurobiological changes that occur during the transition to parenthood importantly contribute to the parents’ caregiving behaviour toward their children. Much research has emphasised the relationship between the mother, who is most often the primary caregiver, and her infant, with less focus on the role of fathers in child development. However, recent accounts have suggested that fathers also play an important role in promoting the health, development and psychosocial wellbeing of their children. Evidence from the behavioural literature has indicated that there are significant differences between typical mother‐infant versus father‐infant interactions. The current review aims to outline differences between maternal and paternal caregiving by discussing the differences in their biological mechanisms. First, we focus on the different hormones that are correlated with sensitive parenting behaviours in mothers and fathers. Next, we discuss the differences between neural bases of motherhood and fatherhood. Lastly, we discuss ways in which parental hormones, parental brain and parental exposure to infant cues interact to shape parental caregiving behaviour. In summary, this review highlights the distinct but complementary nature of maternal and paternal caregiving.     

Adolescent and older mothers' interaction patterns with their six-month-old infants

Children of adolescent mothers suffer more physical, intellectual, and emotional difficulties than do other children. In order to gain a better understanding of the differences, the interaction patterns of adolescent mothers and non-adolescent mothers interacting with their young infants were compared. One hundred adolescent mothers and 29 married primiparous non-adolescent mothers were observed interacting with their six-month-old infants during a feeding episode and a play episode. All of the mothers had a high school education or less. During feeding, the adolescent mothers demonstrated less expressiveness, less positive attitude, less delight, less positive regard, fewer vocalizations, and a lower quality of vocalizations than non-adolescent mothers. During play, the adolescent mothers demonstrated less inventiveness, less patience, and less positive attitude than the non-adolescent mothers. These results extend and strengthen what is known about adolescent mothers patterns of interaction with their young infants.     

Early childhood predictors of mothers' and fathers' relationships with adolescents with developmental disabilities

Background The importance of positive parent–adolescent relationships is stressed in research on adolescents, although very little is known about this relationship when a teen has developmental disabilities (DD). We investigated the relationships of adolescents with disabilities with their mothers and their fathers in order to answer a number of questions regarding these relationships. In particular, we asked: are there differences in the relationships of mothers and fathers with their adolescent with DD? Are there early childhood predictors of the parent–teen relationship and are those based on variables that are amenable to intervention? Finally, do these predictors differ for mothers and fathers? Methods This study focused on the relationships of 72 mothers and 53 fathers with their 15‐year‐old teens with DD and their predictors from the early childhood years. Data were collected from parents through interviews and self‐administered questionnaires, and from their children with disabilities through structured assessment when children were age 3 years and again at age 15 years. Results Analyses indicated that both mother–teen and father–teen relationships were predicted by earlier parenting stress. The father–teen relationship was also predicted by early behaviour problems, but this relation was mediated by parenting stress. Socio‐economic status, type of disability and the child's level of functioning were not predictive of later relationships between parents and teens. Mothers and fathers did not differ significantly in their reports of perceived positive relationships with their teens. Conclusions The findings from this study suggest two important points of potential intervention during the early intervention years. First, parenting assistance and support to reduce stress during the early childhood years can benefit both mothers and fathers. Second, helping families and children cope with and diminish problem behaviours is likely to yield multiple advantages for parents and children and deserves emphasis in early intervention and pre‐school programmes.     

Paternal versus maternal coping styles with child diagnosis of developmental delay

Parents of children with disabilities vary in their reaction to their children's diagnosis. The current study focused on fathers in addition to mothers and examined their resolution and coping styles when having children diagnosed with developmental delay (DD). Sixty-five fathers and 71 mothers were interviewed using the reaction to the diagnosis interview (RDI; Pianta & Marvin, 1992a). Results indicated that the majority of parents were unresolved with their child's diagnosis, with no differences found between fathers’ and mothers’ rates of resolution. Furthermore, both parents of children that were diagnosed at a later age and parents that were less educated tended to be unresolved, as did fathers of a lower socioeconomic status. Older age of both children and mothers was related to maternal lack of resolution. Finally, an in-depth examination revealed significant differences in the manner in which fathers and mothers cope with their children's diagnosis: whereas mothers were more prone to using an emotional coping style, fathers tended to use a cognitive coping style. The clinical implications of paternal versus maternal coping styles are discussed.     

Associations Between Father Temperament,Character, Rearing,Psychopathology and Child Temperament in Children Aged 3–6 Years

Temperament refers to the totality of individual characteristics present from birth that determine a child’s unique style of behavior. Maternal personality and attitudes, one of the factors affecting temperament traits in children, is a frequently investigated subject. However, paternal variables have remained insufficiently studied. The purpose of this study is to investigate the associations between the fathers’ temperament, character, attitudes, psychopathology and temperament of the 3–6 years-old children. The parents of 36–60 months-old children in the preschool settings in Samsun were included in the study (n:200). Their mothers completed “Maternal Sociodemographic Form” prepared by the researcher, and the temperament of children “Children Behaviour Questionnare” were scored by the mothers. Their fathers completed “Paternal Sociodemographic Form”, and to assess father psychopathology “Brief Symptom Inventory”, to determine father temperament and character “Temperament and Character Inventory” and to determine attitudes “Parenting Attitudes Scale” were scored by the fathers. In this study, we found several significant associations between children’s temperament and fathers temperament and character, attitudes styles and psychopathology. The scores of paternal harm avoidance increase and self directedness decrease were found to be significantly positivily correlated with negative temperamental charecteristics of the children. The democratic attitudes of fathers were significantly correlated with positive temperamental scores of the children. All domains of paternal psychopathology were found to be in significant association with negative temperamental characteristics of the children. Our findings showed the complex interplay between determinants of parenting. Specifically, this study is one of the first to investigate paternal personality, psychopathology and attitudes, alone and in interaction with preschool child temperament.     

Parent-child bonding and family functioning in depressed children and children at high risk and low risk for future depression

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate parent-child bonding and familial functioning in depressed children, children at high risk for depression, and low-risk controls. METHOD: Diagnoses of children and their relatives were obtained via structured interviews with all available informants. Depressed children (n = 54) received a diagnosis of current major depressive disorder (MDD). The high-risk children (n = 21) had no lifetime diagnoses of mood disorders, but at least one first-degree relative with a lifetime history of depression. The low-risk controls (n = 23) had no lifetime psychiatric disorders and no first-degree relative with a lifetime history of mood disorders. Parent-child bonding was evaluated with the child's report on the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI). Familial functioning was evaluated with each parent answering the Family Assessment Device (FAD). RESULTS: Significant differences were found between the MDD and low-risk children on most parameters of the PBI and FAD. The children with MDD reported significantly elevated maternal overprotection, and their fathers scored significantly lower on the FAD scales of Behavioral Control and General Functioning, compared with the high-risk children. Mothers of high-risk children had significantly lower scores on the Roles and Affective Involvement dimensions of the FAD compared with mothers of low-risk children. Current maternal depression had a deleterious effect on the child's perception of maternal protection and paternal care, mother's report on all FAD scales, and father's report on most FAD scales, whether interacting with the child's depression or existing even if the child was not depressed. CONCLUSION: Maternal depression and its interaction with the child's depression appear to have negative consequences for parent-child bonding and family functioning.     

From adolescence to parenthood: a multi-decade study of preconception mental health problems and postpartum parent–infant bonds

Purpose

To examine associations between anxiety and depressive symptoms across adolescence and young adulthood with subsequent maternal- and paternal–infant bonding at 1 year postpartum.

Methods

The data were from a prospective, intergenerational cohort study. Participants (381 mothers of 648 infants; 277 fathers of 421 infants) self-reported depression and anxiety at three adolescent waves (ages 13, 15 and 17 years) and three young adult waves (ages 19, 23 and 27 years). Subsequent parent–infant bonds with infants were reported at 1 year postpartum (parent age 29–35 years). Generalised estimating equations (GEE) separately assessed associations for mothers and fathers.

Results

Mean postpartum bonding scores were approximately half a standard deviation lower in parents with a history of persistent adolescent and young adult depressive symptoms (maternal β_adj = − 0.45, 95% CI − 0.69, − 0.21; paternal β_adj = − 0.55, 95% CI − 0.90, 0.20) or anxiety (maternal β_adj = − 0.42, 95% CI − 0.66, − 0.18; paternal β_adj = − 0.49, 95% CI − 0.95, 0.03). Associations were still mostly evident, but attenuated after further adjustment for postpartum mental health concurrent with measurement of bonding.

Conclusions

Persistent symptoms of depression or anxiety spanning adolescence and young adulthood predict poorer emotional bonding with infants 1-year postbirth for both mothers and fathers.

     

Parenting stress in families with very low birth weight preterm infants in early infancy

Taking care of a premature infant adds an extra burden to already stressed parents. Previous studies have shown that parental stress occurs during the initial hospitalization. However, there is little information on parental stress over time, and the few existing results are conflicting. In addition, many studies have focused on maternal stress but there is little information about a father's long-term adaptation to stress. The purpose of this study was to examine the degree and type of parenting stress in the families of very low birth weight (VLBW) preterm infants over the first two years of life. We compared parenting stress in families with preterm infants with control families, while also comparing the stress in mothers to that in fathers. Furthermore, we explored the relationship between parenting stress in the preterm group with identified factors that included the infant's age, medical complications, and parents’ perceived feeding issues after they had been discharged from the hospital. This was an exploratory study with a cross sectional design. Participants included a total of 505 mothers from Tainan, Taiwan; 297 with preterm children (239 mothers, 58 fathers) and 208 with full-term children (181 mothers, 27 fathers). Assessments including the Parenting Stress Index, Neonatal Medical Index and Behavior-based Feeding Questionnaire were used to measure parental distress, infants’ medical complications and parents’ perceived feeding issues, respectively. Results of the study, though not statistically significant, indicated the presence of increased parenting stress in parents of preterm infants as compared to parents of full-term infants. 13.1% of mothers with preterm infants demonstrated total stress levels that warranted clinical intervention. We also found that mothers of preterm infants presented different parenting stress patterns than fathers of preterm infants. Fathers of preterm infants tended to have overall higher stress scores than mothers. On the other hand, mothers of preterm infants tended to report more health related difficulties, more depression, higher social isolation and role restriction, and less support from their spouses, than reported by fathers. Moreover, as time went on, parents with preterm infants continued to experience greater parenting stress than those with full-term infants. Understanding the experiences of parents with preterm children is important for health care providers while interviewing parents for information regarding their children and designing intervention programs to improve children's outcomes.     

Sense of coherence in patients of a psychiatric adolescent unit

The sense of coherence of 72 hospitalized adolescent patients assessed by SOC 29 was significantly lower then SOC of their siblings, mothers and fathers. SOC did not differentiate sensitivity subscale, which was significantly lower in a group of neurotic, then psychotic and eating disorders patients. SOC did not correlate with the number of hospitalizations. The sense of coherence of mothers of adolescent patients was not significantly different from SOC of mothers of healthy children, but SOC of patients' fathers was higher (approaching statistical, significance) then SOC of fathers of healthy children.     

Pre-school children with and without developmental delay: behaviour problems and parenting stress over time

BACKGROUND: Children with intellectual disability are at heightened risk for behaviour problems and diagnosed mental disorder. METHODS: The present authors studied the early manifestation and continuity of problem behaviours in 205 pre-school children with and without developmental delays. RESULTS: Behaviour problems were quite stable over the year from age 36-48 months. Children with developmental delays were rated higher on behaviour problems than their non-delayed peers, and were three times as likely to score in the clinical range. Mothers and fathers showed high agreement in their rating of child problems, especially in the delayed group. Parenting stress was also higher in the delayed group, but was related to the extent of behaviour problems rather than to the child's developmental delay. CONCLUSIONS: Over time, a transactional model fit the relationship between parenting stress and behaviour problems: high parenting stress contributed to a worsening in child behaviour problems over time, and high child behaviour problems contributed to a worsening in parenting stress. Findings for mothers and fathers were quite similar.     

Parenting and adolescent adjustment: the role of parental reflective function

Reflective function (RF) is the capacity to reflect on one's own mental experiences and those of others. This study examined the relationship between parental RF and adolescent adjustment. One hundred and five adolescents, aged 14-18, and their mothers and fathers were interviewed and completed questionnaires during home visits. We measured parental RF, aspects of parenting behavior, and adolescent outcomes. We found that parental RF correlated with adolescent RF and social competence. Unexpectedly, it also correlated with internalizing problems and less positive self-perception. In addition, parental RF, particularly paternal RF, interacted with aspects of parenting behavior. In the presence of higher levels of parental RF, these behavioral aspects were associated with more positive adolescent outcomes. We conclude that (a) parental RF is associated with both desirable outcomes and possible costs and (b) parental RF, particularly paternal RF, is a significant moderator of the associations between parenting behaviors and adolescent outcomes.     

Predictors of stress in mothers and fathers of children with fragile X syndrome

This study examined parental and family stress and functioning where there is a child with fragile X syndrome. Mothers and fathers in 40 families were asked about their child with fragile X syndrome, family supports, their psychological stress, the marital relationship, and their family stress. Results indicate parents were well adjusted in terms of their levels of psychological stress and in their marital relationships, however, parents reported high levels of family stress. Mothers and fathers were found to experience similar levels of stress and to report similar levels of satisfaction with supports. Stress was predicted by different variables in mothers and fathers, suggesting that different processes underlie their experiences. The strongest predictor of maternal stress was the level of marital satisfaction while the strongest predictor of paternal stress was the level of the child's adaptive skills.     

Intergenerational Transmission of Depressive Symptoms: The Role of Parental Negative Perceptions and Behaviors

This study examined parental proximal processes involving in the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms from parents to their children. Extant literature has predominantly focused on maternal depressive symptoms. Yet, the mechanisms that may underlie the transmission of paternal depressive symptoms is less often studied. Participants were Chinese parents of first-graders (N?=?2282). Results of structural equation modeling suggested that maternal and paternal depressive symptoms may be transmitted to their children through differential processes. Depressive symptoms in mothers, but not in fathers, were associated with their negatively-biased perceptions and dysfunctional parenting practices, which then predicted depressive symptoms in children. Moreover, mothers’ depressive symptoms were associated with children’s depressive symptoms regardless of child gender, whereas fathers’ depressive symptoms were associated with boys’, but not girls’, depressive symptoms. Findings expand the understandings on parental processes in the intergenerational transmission of depressive symptoms in families, the role of paternal depressive symptoms in promoting children’s depressive symptoms, and who may be at particular risks for psychopathology in the face of parental depressive symptoms.     

Moderators of the Relations Between Mothers’ and Fathers’ Parenting Practices and Children’s Prosocial Behavior

Using multilevel modeling, we separately examined the relations between mothers’ and fathers’ parenting practices and children’s prosocial behavior, as well as the moderating roles of child sex, age, and ethnicity. Participants included a diverse community sample of 129 cohabiting couples with a child aged 6–17. Results indicated that paternal positivity and corporal punishment were significantly related to girls’, but not boys’, prosocial behavior, and paternal involvement was related to prosocial behavior in school-aged children but not adolescents. Greater levels of positivity in both parents were related to more prosocial behavior in Caucasian children and less in African American children. Overall, the findings suggest that fathers’ parenting is important and may differentially influence children of different sexes and ages, underscoring the importance of examining both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting in relation to child outcomes and with diverse samples. Findings also highlight the need for culturally appropriate measures of parenting.     

Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities

Background Positive psychology is an area gaining credence within the field of intellectual disability (ID). Hope is one facet of positive psychology that is relatively unstudied in parents of children with ID. In the present study, we explore hope and its relationships with parental well‐being in parents of school‐aged children with ID. Method A total of 138 mothers and 58 fathers of children with ID took part in a questionnaire‐based study. Parents reported on their feelings of hope and positive affect, other dimensions of psychological well‐being (anxiety, depression and stress), and on their child's behaviour. For this study, hope was measured as a goal driven behaviour comprising two components: agency (the perception that one can reach his/her goals) and pathways (the perception that one can find alternative routes to reach these goals should the need arise). Results For mothers, regression analyses revealed that lower levels of hope (agency and pathways) and more child behaviour problems predicted maternal depression. Positive affect was predicted by less problematic child behaviour and by higher levels of hope agency. For fathers, anxiety and depression were predicted by low hope agency and positive affect was predicted by high hope agency. Hope pathways was not a significant predictor of paternal well‐being. Hope agency and pathways interacted in the prediction of maternal depression such that mothers reporting high levels of both hope dimensions reported the lowest levels of depressive symptoms. Conclusions Hope is a construct that merits further investigation within families research, and is potentially a factor that could be utilised in intervention to help increase familial well‐being.     

An epidemiological examination of parenting and family correlates of emotional problems in young children

The present article used data from a community sample of primary caregivers of children between 4 and 7 years old to investigate the prevalence and correlates of emotional symptoms in young children transitioning to elementary school. Mothers (n = 3,483) and fathers (n = 1,019) living in metropolitan areas of eastern Australia participated in a telephone survey of parenting practices and child behavioral and emotional problems. Fifteen percent of mothers and 12% of fathers reported that their child showed clinically elevated levels of emotional symptoms. The most common parental responses to a child's anxious or distressed behavior were to use physical contact, talk in a soothing voice, or encourage their child to be brave, while fewer than 10% of parents ignored their child's distress by not giving any attention. For mothers, reports of child emotional symptoms were associated with mothers' use of physical contact to soothe their children, mothers' level of personal stress and depression, their confidence in managing anxious or distressed behavior, and consistency in their application of discipline. Fathers' encouragement of their children to be brave and fathers' confidence in managing anxious or distressed behavior were associated with reduced child emotional symptoms. These findings have implications for the development of universal prevention programs for internalizing disorders in children.     

Family functioning and peer affiliation in children of fathers with antisocial personality disorder and substance dependence: associations with problem behaviors

OBJECTIVE: Family functioning and peer influences are theoretically linked to child psychopathology. This study quantified the functional status of families with fathers with substance dependence with or without comorbid antisocial personality disorder and evaluated the peer environments of preadolescent offspring. The authors examined associations between the child's psychopathology, paternal substance dependence/antisocial personality disorder status, and measures of family and peer environments. METHOD: Families with the presence or absence of paternal substance dependence were subdivided into those with and without paternal antisocial personality disorder. Grouped families were contrasted on measures of family functioning, the child's peer affiliation, and the child's problem behaviors. Regression analysis determined the influence of these factors on the child's psychopathology. RESULTS: Families with paternal substance dependence functioned worse than normal comparison families. However, families with paternal substance dependence and antisocial personality disorder (N=34) did not differ markedly from those with substance dependence without antisocial personality disorder (N=84). The children of fathers with both substance dependence and antisocial personality disorder had greater affiliation with deviant peers than those with substance dependence without antisocial personality disorder and comparison families (N=104). CONCLUSIONS: Children of fathers with substance dependence and antisocial personality disorder demonstrated higher externalizing and internalizing psychopathology than those with substance dependence but not antisocial personality disorder and those without either condition. Paternal substance dependence/antisocial personality disorder status and the child's affiliation with deviant peers were most robustly associated with the child's psychopathology. Research is needed to develop interventions that effectively address parental risk and healthy peer relations.     

How are parental reactions to children’s emotions linked with Theory of Mind in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder?

BackgroundBased on the model of ‘Parental Socialization of Emotions’ (Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998), these studies examined the profiles of parental reactions to their children’s emotions and the relation between these reactions and their ASD children’s ToM abilities. They could help identify protective versus risk factors in their ToM development.MethodThe participants in Study 1 included 29 mothers and 29 fathers of ASD children (26 boys and 3 girls). In Study 2, 39 mothers and 31 fathers and their ASD children participated. In both studies, mothers and fathers independently completed a questionnaire about their reactions to their children’s emotions. In Study 2 only, children’s ToM abilities were assessed by means of direct measures and a questionnaire completed by parents.ResultsThe results indicated that mothers displayed more encouragement and less minimizing responses to their ASD children’s negative emotions than fathers. For both maternal and paternal model analysed by stepwise regressions, the results highlighted specific links between each parent’s reactions and children’s ToM abilities that varied according to mental states. These findings suggested that parental reactions which help the children to understand how they can solve problems are protective factors, while parental reactions which deprive children of an opportunity to explore their feelings are risk factors.ConclusionThese studies provide new information about how parental reactions to children’s emotions could socialise ASD children’s ToM abilities better; this could be useful for adapting parental support programmes.