盐酸戊乙奎醚不同给药方式对大容量肺灌洗患者术后呼吸动力学的影响

目的 探讨盐酸戊乙奎醚不同给药方式对大容量肺灌洗患者术后呼吸动力学的影响.方法 择期行左全肺大容量肺灌洗术患者40例,采用完全随机分组法分成静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚组(A组)与雾化吸入盐酸戊乙奎醚组(B组),每组20例.灌洗开始前30 min A组静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01 mg/kg,B组给予灌洗侧肺雾化吸入盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01 mg/kg(用生理盐水稀释至5 ml),15 min.记录插管后(T0)、灌洗开始前(T1)、灌洗结束(T2)及灌洗结束后30 min(T3)、60 min(T4)、90 min(T5)、120 min(T6)灌洗侧肺气道峰压(peak airway pressure,Ppeak)及肺动态顺应性(lung dynamic compliance,Cdyn).统计灌洗液总量、灌洗液残留量、灌洗时间,收集术中患者口腔分泌物.结果 与T0比较,两组患者T1时Cdyn[A组(30.3±1.9) ml/cmH2O,B组(30.5±1.8) ml/cmH2O(1 cmH2O=0.098 kPa)]均明显升高,Ppeak[A组(18.8±1.2) cmH2O,B组(17.9±1.4) cmH2O)]均明显降低(P＜0.05).T4、T5时与A组比较,B组Cdyn[(22.8±1.7)、(26.8± 1.7) ml/cmH2O)]明显升高,Ppeak[(25.2±1.5)、(20.2±1.2) cmH2O)]明显降低(P＜0.05).结论 大容量肺灌洗术患者灌洗侧肺术前雾化吸入戊乙奎醚有利于患者术后Cdyn的恢复,能改善患者通气,缩短术后呼吸力学指标的恢复时间.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚用于婴幼儿先天性心脏病手术麻醉前用药的临床研究

目的 评价盐酸戊乙奎醚用于婴幼儿先天性心脏病手术麻醉前给药的效果.方法 心肺转流(CPB)下行先天性心脏病矫治手术的患儿120例,随机均分为四组,分别于麻醉前静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.03 mg/kg(A组)、0.04 mg/kg(B组)、0.05 mg/kg(C组)和阿托品0.02 mg/kg(D组),观察记录用药前、后不同时点的唾液分泌量、心率、血压及气道峰压等的变化.结果 用药后5、30 min及术毕时的唾液分泌量四组均较用药前5 min明显减少(P＜0.05);B、C、D组明显少于A组(P＜0.05);C组又明显少于B和D组(P＜0.05).D组诱导前、诱导后3 min心率明显增快,也明显快于同时点A、B、C组(P＜0.05).A、D组停机后气道峰压较CPB前明显上升(P＜0.05或P＜0.01).B、C组CPB前后气道峰压无变化.结论 0.04～0.05 mg/kg盐酸戊乙奎醚作为婴幼儿先天性心脏病手术麻醉前用药能有效地减少唾液分泌、降低气道阻力,而对血流动力学无明显影响.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肺转流患者肠损伤和炎性因子的影响

目的 探讨盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肺转流(CPB)患者肠损伤和炎性因子的影响.方法 40例ASA Ⅱ或Ⅲ级心瓣膜置换术患者,随机均分为盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组)和对照组(C组),分别在CPB前10 min颈内静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚0.05 mg/kg或等容量生理盐水.分别于CPB前(T1)、主动脉开放10 min(T2)、停CPB即刻(T3)、术后2 h(T4)、6 h(T5)、18 h(T6)采取中心静脉血,应用ELISA法检测血清肠型脂肪酸结合蛋白(I-FABP)、白细胞介素-6 (IL-6)、白细胞介素-10(IL-10)浓度.结果 与T1时比较,T2～T6时两组I-FABP、IL-6和IL-10浓度均显著升高(P<0.05).T2、T4、T5时P组I-FABP浓度显著低于C组,T4、T5时IL-6浓度亦显著低于C组(P<0.05).结论 盐酸戊乙奎醚0.05 mg/kg可减轻患者肠损伤和炎性因子的释放.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚与阿托品用于婴幼儿支气管肺泡灌洗术的比较

目的比较盐酸戊乙奎醚与阿托品在婴幼儿支气管肺泡灌洗术术前用药的有效性及安全性。方法 80例接受支气管肺泡灌洗术患儿随机均分为P组与A组,分别静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.01 mg/kg或阿托品0.01 mg/kg。记录给药前(T1)、给药后10 min(T2)、手术开始时(T3)、手术30min(T4)、手术结束(T5)与术后4 h(T6)时的HR、MAP、SpO2及唾液分泌量。结果 T2时唾液分泌量两组均明显低于T1时(P<0.05);T3后开始增加,P组增加缓慢,T6时恢复正常;而A组增加较快,至T6时明显多于T1时(P<0.05);A组唾液分泌总量明显多于P组(P<0.05)。血流动力学T2时P组HR减慢、MAP下降(P<0.05),T3后增快或升高;T2后A组HR即明显增快、MAP升高(P<0.05),T6时两组均恢复正常。A组HR明显快于、MAP明显高于P组(P<0.05)。结论婴幼儿支气管肺泡灌洗术前用盐酸戊乙奎醚临床效果优于阿托品。     

盐酸戊乙奎醚用于新生儿肠梗阻急诊手术的临床观察

目的 观察盐酸戊乙奎醚在新生儿肠梗阻急诊手术中对误吸所致肺部症状的影响.方法 急诊肠梗阻手术新生儿40例,术前均因误吸导致肺部炎症,随机均分为盐酸戊乙奎醚组(A组)和阿托品组(B组).麻醉诱导前A组静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.3 mg,B组静注阿托品0.1 mg.听诊患儿给药前及给药后10 min的呼吸音;记录给药前、给药后10、30 min鼓膜温度、HR,SpO;现察给药前、给药后30 min及术毕患儿面色和口腔分泌物情况;记录拔管时间及ICU停留时间结果给药后10 min,A组肺部干湿啰音消失或减轻,B组无明显改变.给药后10、30 min,A组HR慢于、鼓膜温度低于、SpO2高于B组(P<0.05),A组在ICU停留时间明显短于B组(P<0.05).结论 盐酸戊乙奎醚用于新生儿肠梗阻急诊手术可减轻患儿误吸所致的肺部症状,改善患儿末梢循环,缩短患儿在ICU停留时间.     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肺转流后肺损伤的保护作用

目的探讨盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肺转流(CPB)后肺损伤的保护作用。方法 40例二尖瓣置换手术患者随机均分为盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组)和对照组(C组),两组麻醉方法相同。P组在麻醉诱导后和升主动脉开放前分别缓慢静注盐酸戊乙奎醚0.02mg/kg;C组在同时点给予等容量的生理盐水。手术开始前(T1)和升主动脉开放后30min(鱼精蛋白中和后,T2)分别进行右肺中叶灌洗。测定肺灌洗液(BALF)中细胞因子白细胞介素-8(IL-8)和肿瘤坏死因子α(TNF-α)浓度;行血气分析计算肺泡-动脉氧分压差(PA-aDO2)。结果 T2时C组BALF中IL-8、TNF-α和PA-aDO2明显高于T1时和P组(P0.05或P0.01)。结论盐酸戊乙奎醚通过抑制炎性细胞因子释放IL-8和TNF-α,减轻CPB后的肺损伤。     

盐酸戊乙奎醚对深低温停循环全弓置换术微循环的影响

目的探讨盐酸戊乙奎醚对深低温停循环全弓置换术微循环的影响。方法选择全麻下30例深低温停循环(DHCA)选择性脑灌注行Bentall+全弓置换术患者,随机均分为两组,盐酸戊乙奎醚组(P组)和对照组(C组),P组在右锁骨下动脉完成插管后予盐酸戊乙奎醚3mg,恢复全身CPB后再给予盐酸戊乙奎醚3mg,C组予以等量生理盐水;于麻醉诱导后(T0)、中心体温(食管温)降至22°时(T1)、降主动脉远端开放即刻(T2)、降主动脉远端开放30min(T3)、CPB 3h(T4)、关胸后(T5)分别取动脉血测乳酸值、取静脉血测静脉血氧饱和度(SvO2),并记录相应时间点尿量、血管活性药物用量。结果 P组T2~T5时乳酸明显低于C组(P0.05),T2~T5时SvO2明显高于C组(P0.05),T2~T5时尿量明显多于C组(P0.05)。结论盐酸戊乙奎醚对深低温停循环全弓置换术似有改善微循环水平的作用。     

硫酸镁对先天性心脏病患儿术后节性心动过速的影响

目的分析先天性心脏病患儿围术期血浆镁浓度降低与节性心动过速(JET)的关系,并观察围术期补充硫酸镁的预防作用。方法 99例先天性心脏病择期在心肺转流(CPB)下手术患儿,随机分为三组:A组(30例)、B组(40例)分别在CPB复温期间补充硫酸镁25、50 mg/kg,C组(29例)为生理盐水组。各组在CPB前(T1)、CPB开始后10 min(T2)、给硫酸镁后10 min(T3)、转入ICU时(T4)测定血浆镁离子浓度。结果 A组有2例、C组有5例发生JET,明显多于B组(0例)(P<0.05)。T3时B组镁离子浓度显著高于T1、T2时和A、C组(P<0.01);T4时A、B两组镁离子浓度明显高于C组(P<0.01)。结论 CPB期间补充硫酸镁可降低JET发生率。     

心脏停搏液中盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肌功能的影响

目的 观察经心脏停搏液使用盐酸戊乙奎醚对心肌功能的影响.方法 二尖瓣手术患者20例,随机均分成两组.P组在心脏停搏液中加入1 mg盐酸戊乙奎醚,C组加入生理盐水.在麻醉诱导前(T1)、心包打开后(T2)、心肺转流(CPB)停止即刻(T3)、CPB结束后6 h(T4)、12 h(T5)、24 h(T6)、48 h(T7)检测心肌肌钙蛋白T(cTnT)、心肌酶谱、肌红蛋白(Mb).结果 T3时两组cTnT、心肌酶谱、Mb均较T1时显著增高(P<0.05),但各时点组间比较差异无统计学意义.结论 经心脏停搏液使用盐酸戊乙奎醚,无心肌保护作用,不引起术后澹妄.     

静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚对腹腔镜手术患者呼吸功能的影响

目的:评价气腹前静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚对腹腔镜胆囊手术患者呼吸功能的影响。方法:择期全麻下拟行腹腔镜胆囊手术患者50例,ASA分级Ⅰ或Ⅱ级,年龄35～64岁,采用随机数字表法,将患者随机分为两组(n=25)静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚组:气腹前15mi n静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚1mg(用生理盐水稀释至2ml)和对照组:静脉注射等容量生理盐水。麻醉诱导:两组均TCI异丙酚(血浆靶浓度3μg/ml),静脉注射瑞芬太尼1μg/kg和顺苯阿曲库铵0.15mg/kg行气管插管。麻醉维持:TCI异丙酚,血浆靶浓度为2μg/ml,TCL瑞芬太尼(血浆靶浓度2～4ng/kg),静脉输注顺阿曲库铵1.2ug.kg-1`.mi n-1。维持BIS45-50。分别于气腹前15mi n给药前即刻(T0)、气腹后即刻(T1)、气腹15mi n(T2)和气腹放气后15mi n(T3)时记录肺动态顺应性、气道峰压和监测血气指标。结果:与T0比较,戊乙奎醚组T1-3时肺动态顺应性(Cd)及气道峰压(Ppeak)差异均无统计学意义(P>0.05),而对照组T1-2时Cd降低,Ppeak升高(P<0.05),于T3与时恢复至T0水平(P>0.05),两组PETCO2升高(P<0.05);与对照组比较,戊乙奎醚组T1-2时Cd升高,Ppeak降低(P<0.05)。结论:在腹腔镜胆囊手术中,气腹前静脉注射盐酸戊乙奎醚可改善二氧化碳人工气腹引起的气道压升高和肺顺应性降低,增加气道通气功能。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.