SET translocation is associated with increase in caspase cleaved amyloid precursor protein in CA1 of Alzheimer and Down syndrome patients

Caspase cleaved amyloid precursor protein (APPcc) and SET are increased and mislocalized in the neuronal cytoplasm in Alzheimer Disease (AD) brains. Translocated SET to the cytoplasm can induce tau hyperphosphorylation. To elucidate the putative relationships between mislocalized APPcc and SET, we studied their level and distribution in the hippocampus of 5 controls, 3 Down syndrome and 10 Alzheimer patients. In Down syndrome and Alzheimer patients, APPcc and SET levels were increased in CA1 and the frequency of both localizations in the neuronal cytoplasm was high in CA1, and low in CA4. As the increase of APPcc is already present at early stages of AD, we overexpressed APPcc in CA1 and the dentate gyrus neurons of adult mice with a lentiviral construct. APPcc overexpression in CA1 and not in the dentate gyrus induced endogenous SET translocation and tau hyperphosphorylation. These data suggest that increase in APPcc in CA1 neurons could be an early event leading to the translocation of SET and the progression of AD through tau hyperphosphorylation.     

Inhibition of protein phosphatase 2A- and protein phosphatase 1-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and impairment of spatial memory retention in rats

Tau hyperphosphorylation leads to formation of paired helical filament/neurofibrillary tangles, the hallmark lesion seen in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. An imbalanced regulation in protein kinases and protein phosphatases in the affected neurons is proposed to be a reasonable causative factor to the disease process. To verify the hypothesis, we have injected in the present study calyculin A, a potent and specific inhibitor of protein phosphatase (PP) 2A and PP1, into rat hippocampus bilaterally, thus reproduced an Alzheimer's-like deficiency in dephosphorylation system. It was found that calyculin A-injected rats developed lesions in spatial memory retention in Morris water maze test. At mean time, tau was hyperphosphorylated at Ser396/Ser404 (PHF-1) and Ser-262/Ser-356 (12E8) sites determined both by immunohistochemistry and Western blot. It is implicated that (1) PP2A and PP1 participate in the in vivo regulation of tau phosphorylation, and down-regulation of the two phosphatases will result in tau hyperphosphorylation; (2) hyperphosphorylation of tau at PHF-1 and 12E8 sites might be crucial to affect spatial memory in AD.     

远志皂苷减轻Aβ1-40诱导的AD大鼠脑神经元tau蛋白Ser396位点的过度磷酸化

目的:探讨远志皂苷对β-淀粉样肽_1-40(Aβ_1-40)诱导的阿尔茨海默病(AD)大鼠脑神经元tau蛋白过度磷酸化的影响。方法:大鼠右侧海马CA1区注射Aβ_1-40建立AD模型,并用远志皂苷(18.5 mg/kg、37.0 mg/kg和74.0 mg/kg)对大鼠进行灌胃治疗;免疫组织化学染色法观察大脑神经元中总tau蛋白、p-tau(Ser³⁹⁶)、蛋白激酶A(PKA)和蛋白磷酸酶2A(PP2A)蛋白的表达;蛋白免疫印迹技术检测大脑神经元中总tau蛋白含量、tau蛋白Ser³⁹⁶位点磷酸化以及PKA、PP2A蛋白的表达水平。结果:与对照组相比,Aβ_1-40组大脑神经元中总tau蛋白含量、tau蛋白Ser³⁹⁶位点磷酸化水平和PKA蛋白的表达水平显著升高,而PP2A蛋白的表达水平明显降低。与Aβ_1-40组相比,远志皂苷各治疗组大鼠大脑神经元中总tau蛋白含量、tau蛋白Ser³⁹⁶位点磷酸化水平和PKA蛋白表达水平下降明显,而PP2A蛋白表达水平显著升高。结论:远志皂苷可能是通过下调PKA蛋白表达量,上调PP2A蛋白表达量,减轻AD大鼠脑神经元中tau蛋白Ser³⁹⁶位点的过度磷酸化,使神经细胞免遭Aβ_1-40的毒害。     

Palmitic and stearic fatty acids induce Alzheimer-like hyperphosphorylation of tau in primary rat cortical neurons

Epidemiological studies suggest that high fat diets significantly increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease (AD). In addition, the AD brain is characterized by high fatty acid content compared to that of healthy subjects. Nevertheless, the basic mechanism relating elevated fatty acids and the pathogenesis of AD remains unclear. The present study examines the role of fatty acids in causing hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein, one of the characteristic signatures of AD pathology. Hyperphosphorylation of tau disrupts the cell cytoskeleton and leads to neuronal degeneration. Here, primary rat cortical neurons and astrocytes were treated with saturated free fatty acids (FFAs), palmitic and stearic acids. There was no change in the levels of phosphorylated tau in rat cortical neurons treated directly with these FFAs. The conditioned media from FFA-treated astrocytes, however, caused hyperphosphorylation of tau in the cortical neurons at AD-specific phospho-epitopes. Co-treatment of neurons with N-acetyl cysteine, an antioxidant, reduced FFA-induced hyperphosphorylation of tau. The present results establish a central role of FFAs in causing hyperphosphorylation of tau through astroglia-mediated oxidative stress.     

Cannabinoid CB1 receptor stimulation affords neuroprotection in MPTP-induced neurotoxicity by attenuating S100B up-regulation in vitro

In this study, we investigated the mechanism of S100B neurotoxicity and the effect of cannabinoids, in C6 cells treated with 1-methyl-4-phenyl 1,2,3,6 tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) and co-cultured with differentiated PC12 cells. MPTP concentration- and time-dependently increased S100B density in C6 cells. This effect was followed by increased C6 cell proliferation and decreased cell viability of co-cultured PC12 cells. An antibody against S100B, given to PC12 cells before co-culture, led to their survival. Treatment with arachidonyl-2-chloroethylamide, a CB1 agonist, significantly inhibited MPTP-induced S100B density in C6 cells and protected co-cultured PC12 cells from cell death. Because MPTP selectively increased the levels of anandamide in C6 cells, the involvement of the endocannabinoid system was investigated by using selective inhibitors of endocannabinoid inactivation (cellular re-uptake or enzymatic hydrolysis) and selective cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptor antagonists and by silencing the CB1 receptor. Our data suggest that selective activation of CB1 receptors by either exogenous or endogenous cannabinoids might afford neuroprotection in MPTP-induced neurotoxicity also by controlling S100B up-regulation in activated glial cells.     

Induction of Bcl-2 and Bax was related to hyperphosphorylation of tau and neuronal death induced by okadaic acid in rat brain

Abnormal hyperphosphorylation of the cytoskeletal protein tau is a characteristic feature of neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD) brain. Okadaic acid (OA), a protein phosphatase inhibitor, induces neuronal death and hyperphosphorylation of tau. In the present study using a model of microinjection of OA into rat frontal cortex, we aimed to investigate if OA-induced hyperphosphorylation of tau and neuronal death are related to the expression of Bcl-2, an apoptosis inhibitor, or Bax, an apoptosis inducer. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis showed that OA injection dose- and time-dependently induced the expression of Bcl-2 and Bax protein in the surrounding of OA injection areas, which were similar with that of AT8 immunostaining, a marker of hyperphosphorylated tau. However, the ratios of Bcl-2 over Bax had a negative relationship to the expression of AT8. Furthermore, double fluorescent staining showed that AT8-positive neurons mainly costained with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridinetriphosphate nick-end labeling, a marker of DNA damage, indicating that tau hyperphosphorylation may be associated with DNA damage in the neurons of rat brain. In the areas more adjacent to the OA injection site, most neurons with AT8-positive staining showed vulnerability to OA toxicity and could be triple-stained with Bcl-2 and Bax or double-stained with Bcl-2. However, in the areas further from the OA injection site, neurons with few AT8-positive staining showed resistance to OA toxicity and only stained with Bcl-2, but not Bax. The results suggest that the ratios of Bcl-2 over Bax expression may have an effect on tau hyperphosphorylation and neuronal death following OA injection.     

Hyperphosphorylation of microtubule-associated tau protein plays dual role in neurodegeneration and neuroprotection

The microtubule-associated protein tau plays a major role in maintaining the normal morphology of the neurons. The major biological activity of tau is to promote microtubule assembly and stabilize the microtubules. In the brain of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients, tau protein is abnormally hyperphosphorylated and thus become incompetent in promoting microtubule assemble and maintaining the stability of the microtubules. These detrimental effects of tau may lead the neurons to degeneration. Recent studies show that tau hyperphorylation may be neuroprotective in the early stages of the disease process. The primary aim of this review is to summarize the latest developments and perspectives in our understanding about the roles of tau hyperphosphorylation in neurodegeneration and neuroprotection.     

Tau hyperphosphorylation affects Smad 2/3 translocation

Transforming growth factors β (TGFβ) regulate multiple biological activities. TGFβ activation of the Smad pathway results in activation of genes encoding extracellular matrix molecules, proteases, protease activators and protease inhibitors. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), TGFβ protein and mRNA levels are raised, which would be expected to be neuroprotective. However, recent observations suggest that TGFβ-Smad signalling is disrupted by the hyperphosphorylation of tau, the primary component of neurofibrillary tangles: phosphorylated Smad2/3 (pSmad 2/3) co-localises with phosphorylated tau in the neuronal cytoplasm and levels are reduced in the nucleus. We have investigated whether in vitro induction of tau hyperphosphorylation influences pSmad 2/3 localisation in rat primary cortical cells. Treatment with okadaic acid, a protein phosphatase 1 and 2A inhibitor caused hyperphosphorylation of tau at epitopes hyperphosphorylated in AD and disrupted pSmad 2/3 translocation into the nucleus. The disruptive effect of tau phosphorylation on pSmad 2/3 translocation was confirmed by treatment of primary cortical cells with synthetic oligomeric Aβ_1-42, a more physiologically relevant model of AD. Our findings suggest that despite the increased level of TGFβ in AD, the TGFβ-Smad signalling pathway is impeded within neurones due to sequestration of pSmad 2/3 by hyperphosphorylated tau. This may compromise neuroprotective actions of TGFβ and contribute to neurodegeneration in AD.     

Nitric oxide, iNOS, and inflammation in cystic fibrosis

Nitric oxide (NO) is produced from three isoforms of nitric oxide synthase (NOS), neuronal (nNOS), endothelial (eNOS) and inducible (iNOS). Cystic fibrosis (CF) patients have an increased bacterial load in the airways which stimulates iNOS and therefore NO production. Upregulation of iNOS in normal epithelial cells protects the lung from damage, but in CF cells, iNOS is not upregulated and NO production is reduced. Reduced iNOS expression is associated with neutrophil sequestration in the lung, thus increasing the potential damage from neutrophil proteases and reactive oxygen species. In contrast, high concentrations of NO may augment the inflammatory process in acute lung injury from sepsis. Meng et al. have shown that cystic fibrosis epithelial cells, when stimulated by a cytokine mix and co-cultured with activated neutrophils, have reduced iNOS expression compared to normal epithelial cells. Although iNOS expression may not accurately reflect activity and NO production may arise from elsewhere, this study suggests that reduced iNOS expression may play a part in the pathophysiological processes in cystic fibrosis.     

A New Molecular Link between the Fibrillar and Granulovacuolar Lesions of Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer's Disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder involving select neurons of the hippocampus, neocortex, and other regions of the brain. Markers of end stage disease include fibrillar lesions, which accumulate hyperphosphorylated tau protein polymerized into filaments, and granulovacuolar lesions, which appear primarily within the hippocampus. The mechanism by which only select populations of neurons develop these lesions as well as the relationship between them is unknown. To address these questions, we have turned to AD tissue to search for enzymes specifically involved in tau hyperphosphorylation. Recently, we showed that the principal phosphotransferases associated with AD brain-derived tau filaments are members of the casein kinase-1 (CK1) family of protein kinases. Here we report the distribution of three CK1 isoforms (Ckialpha, Ckidelta, and Ckiepsilon) in AD and control brains using immunohistochemistry and Western analysis. In addition to colocalizing with elements of the fibrillar pathology, CK1 is found within the matrix of granulovacuolar degeneration bodies. Furthermore, levels of all CK1 isoforms are elevated in the CA1 region of AD hippocampus relative to controls, with one isoform, Ckidelta, being elevated >30-fold. We propose that overexpression of this protein kinase family plays a key role in the hyperphosphorylation of tau and in the formation of AD-related pathology.     

Aberrant glycosylation modulates phosphorylation of tau by protein kinase A and dephosphorylation of tau by protein phosphatase 2A and 5

Microtubule-associated protein tau is abnormally hyperphosphorylated, glycosylated, and aggregated in affected neurons in Alzheimer's disease (AD). We recently found that the aberrant tau glycosylation precedes tau hyperphosphorylation in AD brain. In the present study, we developed assays to determine phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of tau at specific phosphorylation sites by using glycosylated tau purified from AD brain as a substrate. We then studied the effects of the aberrant glycosylation on phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of tau at each specific phosphorylation site. We found that deglycosylation of the aberrantly glycosylated tau decreased the subsequent phosphorylation of tau at Ser214, Ser262, and Ser356 in vitro by protein kinase A. On the other hand, deglycosylation of tau positively modulated the subsequent dephosphorylation by protein phosphatase 2A and protein phosphatase 5 in vitro at the phosphorylation sites Ser198, Ser199, and Ser202.Our results suggest that the aberrant glycosylation may modulate tau protein at a substrate level so that it is easier to be phosphorylated and more difficult to be dephosphorylated at some phosphorylation sites in AD brain. The combined impact of this modulation may be to make tau more susceptible to becoming abnormally hyperphosphorylated.     

Toxoplasma gondii prevents neuron degeneration by interferon-gamma-activated microglia in a mechanism involving inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and transforming growth factor-beta1 production by infected microglia

Interferon (IFN)-gamma, the main cytokine responsible for immunological defense against Toxoplasma gondii, is essential in all infected tissues, including the central nervous system. However, IFN-gamma-activated microglia may cause tissue injury through production of toxic metabolites such as nitric oxide (NO), a potent inducer of central nervous system pathologies related to inflammatory neuronal disturbances. Despite potential NO toxicity, neurodegeneration is not commonly found during chronic T. gondii infection. In this study, we describe decreased NO production by IFN-gamma-activated microglial cells infected by T. gondii. This effect involved strong inhibition of iNOS expression in IFN-gamma-activated, infected microglia but not in uninfected neighboring cells. The inhibition of NO production and iNOS expression were parallel with recovery of neurite outgrowth when neurons were co-cultured with T. gondii-infected, IFN-gamma-activated microglia. In the presence of transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta1-neutralizing antibodies, the beneficial effect of the parasite on neurons was abrogated, and NO production reverted to levels similar to IFN-gamma-activated uninfected co-cultures. In addition, we observed Smad-2 nuclear translocation, a hallmark of TGF-beta1 downstream signaling, in infected microglial cultures, emphasizing an autocrine effect restricted to infected cells. Together, these data may explain a neuropreservation pattern observed during immunocompetent host infection that is dependent on T. gondii-triggered TGF-beta1 secretion by infected microglia.     

Disruption of IFN-gamma- mediated antiviral activity in neurons: the role of cannabinoids

Interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) has potent antiviral activity in neurons which is affected by the production of nitric oxide (NO). This study examines the interactions between cannabinoid receptor-1 (CB(1)), IFNgamma-induced pathways, and inhibition of vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) replication in neuronal cells. CB(1) is abundantly expressed in neurons of the CNS and the NB41A3 neuroblastoma cell line. CB(1) activation of NB41A3 cells by the synthetic cannabinoid, WIN55,212-2, is associated with an inhibition of Ca(2+) mobilization, leading to diminished nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-1 activity and the production of NO, in vitro. This ultimately results in antagonism of IFN-gamma-mediated antiviral activity and enhanced viral replication. Therefore, activation of cells expressing CB(1) by endogenous (or exogenous) ligands may contribute to decreased inflammation and to increased viral replication in neurons and disease in the CNS.     

丝裂原激活蛋白激酶在内毒素脂多糖诱导大鼠施万细胞一氧化氮合酶表达中的作用

目的 主要研究丝裂原激活蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号途径在内毒素脂多糖(LPS)诱导大鼠施万细胞(Scs)诱导型一氧化氮合酶(iNOS)基因表达和一氧化氮(NO)产生中的作用.方法 先用3种MAPK的特异性抑制剂PD98059(ERK1/2)、SB202190(P38 MAPK)和SP600125(JNK)以不同浓度预处理细胞1h,再用LPS作用施万细胞4 h后,用RT-PCR检测细胞中iNOS mRNA、IL-6 mRNA和TNF-α mRNA的表达;Western blotting观察iNOS蛋白水平的表达变化;通过测定细胞培养液中亚硝酸盐含量来观察NO的水平.结果 LPS可显著激活施万细胞中MAPK信号通路诱导iNOS表达.MAPK的抑制剂预处理细胞后,可显著抑制细胞iNOS mRNA和NO的合成及IL-6 mRNA和TNF-α mRNA的表达.结论 MAPK信号通路参与了LPS介导的大鼠施万细胞iNOS基因表达和NO产生,通过阻断细胞内信号转导通路来减少iNOS及其他细胞因子的产生,为抑制周围神经损伤后的炎症以及免疫反应发生提供了一条新思路.     

Expression of human apolipoprotein E4 in neurons causes hyperphosphorylation of protein tau in the brains of transgenic mice

Epidemiological studies have established that the epsilon 4 allele of the ApoE gene (ApoE4) constitutes an important risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and might influence the outcome of central nervous system injury. The mechanism by which ApoE4 contributes to the development of neurodegeneration remains unknown. To test one hypothesis or mode of action of ApoE, we generated transgenic mice that overexpressed human ApoE4 in different cell types in the brain, using four distinct gene promoter constructs. Many transgenic mice expressing ApoE4 in neurons developed motor problems accompanied by muscle wasting, loss of body weight, and premature death. Overexpression of human ApoE4 in neurons resulted in hyperphosphorylation of the microtubule-associated protein tau. In three independent transgenic lines from two different promoter constructs, increased phosphorylation of protein tau was correlated with ApoE4 expression levels. Hyperphosphorylation of protein tau increased with age. In the hippocampus, astrogliosis and ubiquitin-positive inclusions were demonstrated. These findings demonstrate that expression of ApoE in neurons results in hyperphosphorylation of protein tau and suggests a role for ApoE in neuronal cytoskeletal stability and metabolism.     

Association of adipocyte enhancer‐binding protein 1 with Alzheimer's disease pathology in human hippocampi

Adipocyte enhancer binding protein 1 (AEBP1) activates inflammatory responses via the NF‐κB pathway in macrophages and regulates adipogenesis in preadipocytes. Up‐regulation of AEBP1 in the hippocampi of patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) has been revealed by microarray analyses of autopsied brains from the Japanese general population (the Hisayama study). In this study, we compared the expression patterns of AEBP1 in normal and AD brains, including in the hippocampus, using immunohistochemistry. The subjects were 24 AD cases and 52 non‐AD cases. Brain specimens were immunostained with antibodies against AEBP1, tau protein, amyloid β protein, NF‐κB, GFAP and Iba‐1. In normal brains, AEBP1 immunoreactivity mainly localized to the perikarya of hippocampal pyramidal neurons, and its expression was elevated in the pyramidal neurons and some astrocytes in AD hippocampi. Although AEBP1 immunoreactivity was almost absent in neurons containing neurofibrillary tangles, AEBP1 was highly expressed in neurons with pretangles and in the tau‐immunopositive, dystrophic neurites of senile plaques. Nuclear localization of NF‐κB was also observed in certain AEBP1‐positive neurons in AD cases. Comparison of AD and non‐AD cases suggested a positive correlation between the expression level of AEBP1 and the degree of amyloid β pathology. These findings imply that AEBP1 protein has a role in the progression of AD pathology.