超声引导下胰岛细胞瘤精细切除的临床研究

目的 探讨在术中B超引导下胰岛细胞瘤精确切除术的临床价值.方法 对我院2000.1-2013.9近13年间收治的22例胰岛细胞瘤患者的临床特点、诊断和治疗方法进行回顾性分析总结.结果 22例患者中功能性胰岛细胞瘤占17例,无功能性5例;前者的主要表现为各种各样的低血糖症状,均有典型的Whipple三联征;后者主要是腹部包块就诊.血清胰岛素测定对诊断功能性胰岛细胞瘤有重要价值.22例经腹B超发现10例（45.5％）,17例患者术前行CT检查,阳性率76.5％ （13/17）,而薄层CT扫描的敏感性可达91.7％ （11/12）.术中B超阳性率100％（19/19）,14例采用非精确切除发生胰瘘6例,8例采用术中在B超引导下对功能性胰岛细胞瘤患者实施精确切除胰瘘l例,超声引导下胰岛细胞瘤精确切除术可有效降低术后胰瘘发生率及胰瘘的严重程度（P＜0.05）.结论 典型的临床表现、CT薄层扫描、结合胰岛素水平测定是诊断胰岛细胞瘤诊断的有效方法;术中超声不仅有助于术中肿瘤的定位,超声引导下精确切除肿瘤,最大限度的保留正常胰腺组织可有效降低术后并发症.     

胰岛细胞瘤的诊断和外科治疗

目的 探讨胰岛细胞瘤的诊断和外科治疗经验. 方法 收集我院1994年1月~2004年12月收治的26例胰腺胰岛细胞瘤患者的临床资料,对其临床表现、检查手段和治疗结果进行回顾分析. 结果 本组以反复发作性意识障碍和反复中上腹隐痛为主要症状,女性发病率高,占61.5%;胰岛素瘤和非功能性胰岛细胞瘤各13例;恶性占11.5%,良性占88.5%;26例手术者中,胰头、体、尾部分别占19.2%,30.8%,50%;2例为多发肿瘤,肿瘤最大直径8 cm;13例胰岛素瘤患者发作时血糖均<2.8 mmol/L(50 mg/dl),血浆胰岛素及C肽增高,胰岛素指数(胰岛素/血糖)>0.3,手术切除后,11例血糖恢复正常.本组患者均行B超和CT检查,88.5%胰腺发现有占位病变.脾胰体尾切除术、肿瘤局部切除术和胰头十二指肠切除术是主要的手术方式,术中均做活检.胰痿是术后主要并发症. 结论 胰腺胰岛细胞瘤发病隐匿,术前诊断困难,根据临床症状及B超和CT检查等可明确肿瘤的位置,而最终定性还是要依据术后病理检查,本病预后明显好于胰腺癌,因此一旦明确诊断应积极争取彻底切除肿瘤.胰腺胰岛细胞瘤具有较高的手术切除率,本组为100%.病理显示非功能性胰岛细胞瘤恶变率高于胰岛素瘤.对于恶性胰岛细胞瘤术后可运用化疗和介入治疗.     

胰腺内分泌肿瘤的诊断与外科治疗

目的提高胰腺内分泌肿瘤的诊断和治疗水平。方法回顾性分析1978年1月至2004年12月经手术治疗、病理证实的38例胰腺内分泌肿瘤病人的临床资料。结果胰腺内分泌肿瘤以胰岛素瘤和无功能性胰岛细胞瘤最常见,分别占57．9%和36.8%,恶性胰岛素瘤和多发性胰岛素瘤各占胰岛素瘤的13．6%,无功能性胰岛细胞瘤中恶性占64．3%;21例(95%)胰岛素瘤成功术前定位和手术切除,1例多发性胰岛素瘤摘除术后 4年后复发,再次手术治愈;86％无功能性胰岛细胞瘤患者以无痛性肿块入院,肿瘤平均大小为8．5cm,6例行胰体尾部切除,4例行胰十二指肠切除,2例行肿瘤摘除,1例行囊肿内引流术,1例行活检术;全组术后并发胰瘘7例(18%)。结论 B超、CT是胰腺内分泌肿瘤有效的诊断方法,肿瘤局部剜出与规范切除是治疗胰腺内分泌肿瘤的有效方法,其预后较好。     

功能性胰岛β细胞瘤的外科诊治分析

目的探讨功能性胰岛β细胞瘤的诊断和治疗方法。方法收集我院1998年4月至2008年4月收治的42例功能性胰岛β细胞瘤患者的临床资料,对其临床表现、检查手段和治疗结果进行回顾性分析。结果42例患者均有Whipple三联征,IRI／G〉0．3有39例。术前行B超和CT检查,分别发现16例（38％）,32例（76％）,术前B超联合CT检查发现34例（81％）,术中B超联合扪诊发现40例（95％）。肿瘤位于胰头15例,胰体12例,胰尾15例;术后病理证实良性肿瘤40例,胰岛细胞增生1例,恶性1例。单纯肿瘤切除25例;胰体尾联合脾切除6例;单纯胰体尾切除9例,1例联合左肾切除;胰十二指肠切除2例。术后胰漏5例,4例为肿瘤摘除者,1例为胰十二指肠切除。1例术后因多器官功能衰竭死亡。结论功能性胰岛β细胞瘤定位诊断尤其重要,术中B超是发现肿瘤较好的手段。手术方式取决于肿瘤大小和位置,合理的手术方式选择能减少术后并发症的发生。     

胰岛细胞瘤32例诊治分析

目的:探讨胰腺内分泌肿瘤的诊断和外科治疗经验。方法:32例中行肿瘤摘除术18例,胰体尾联合脾切除术4例,胰十二指肠切除术4例,肿瘤切除并胃大部切除术2例,Whipple术3例,捆绑式胰体空肠吻合术1例。结果:B超、CT、MRI、DSA诊断胰岛细胞瘤的敏感性分别为62.5%、75%、80%、87.5%。术后并发症包括胰瘘、切口感染、腹腔内出血。结论:无功能胰岛细胞瘤恶性率显著高于功能性胰岛细胞瘤(P<0.01)。胰腺内分泌肿瘤的外科治疗方案主要取决于肿瘤的大小、定位和恶性度。对良性者宜行单纯肿瘤切除或胰腺部分切除,对恶性肿瘤应以扩大范围的根治性肿瘤切除术为主的综合治疗。     

腹腔镜胰岛细胞瘤切除术的临床应用

目的探讨腹腔镜胰岛细胞瘤手术切除的可行性。方法 2007年9月至2009年8月,经临床筛选胰岛细胞瘤病例8例,无功能性2例,功能性6例。病灶直径1.2～4.5cm,平均(2.7±0.7)cm。术前行腹部超声、超声造影、内镜超声、CT、MIR及DSA进行定位,必要时行术中超声,确保肿瘤完全切除干净,术后放置引流管,防止胰漏。结果 8例完全腹腔镜下胰岛细胞瘤除,其中沿包膜完整切除4例,连同部分胰腺组织切除2例,胰体尾加脾脏切除1例,保留脾脏胰尾部切除1例。手术时间90～320min,平均(220.9±71.9)min,出血量50～800ml,平均(350.6±210.5)ml。术中未出现不能控制的并发症,术后腹腔引流管放置时间5～14d。其中1例拔管后发生胰漏,形成腹腔内包裹性囊肿。其他无胰漏、出血等并发症,术后平均住院7.4d。结论腹腔镜胰岛细胞瘤切除术是安全、微创、可行,可达到开腹完整切除的目的,值得临床推广使用。     

2例恶性非功能性胰岛细胞瘤的临床分析

目的 探讨恶性非功能性胰岛细胞瘤的临床特点及诊断治疗方法。方法 对2例恶性非功能性胰岛细胞瘤患者进行回顾性分析。结果 首例病人初次手术时发现脾脏转移,行胰尾及脾脏切除,5年后因结肠脾曲转移再次行左半结肠癌根治术,术后5年死亡;次例病人首次手术已发现腹腔广泛转移,行病灶局部切除术,术后10个月死亡。结论 腹部B超、CT检查对定位诊断有帮助,最终诊断恶性胰岛细胞瘤只有肿瘤转移才是唯一可靠的标准。主要的治疗方法是手术根治及联合化疗。     

无功能胰岛细胞瘤的临床特点及诊治分析

目的：探讨无功能胰岛细胞瘤的临床特点和诊断治疗方法。方法：回顾性分析23例无功能胰岛细胞瘤的临床资料。结果：以腹部肿块（65.2%）,腹痛腹胀(47.8%),梗阻性黄疸(26.1%)等为主要临床表现;经B超,CT,MRI等影像学检查均诊断为胰腺肿瘤,肿瘤平均直径为9.5 cm。行胰十二指肠切除11例（47.8%）,胰体尾切除+脾切除术5例（21.7%）,其他7例（30.4%）。术后病理证实20例为良性（87.0%）,3例为恶性（13.0%）。胰瘘（3例,13.0%）是主要的术后并发症,均经非手术方法治愈。随访恶性者3例中1例术后1年内死亡,另2例现已无瘤生存29个月和8个月;随访17例良性者,已分别生存1~7年。结论：无功能胰岛细胞瘤的诊断应根据临床表现、实验室和影像学检查并结合术中的探查、术后病理综合确定,手术治疗预后良好。     

胰岛细胞瘤21例临床分析

目的:探讨胰岛细胞瘤的临床特征、治疗效果。方法:回顾分析我院近5年诊治胰岛细胞瘤21例的经验,总结胰岛细胞瘤的临床特征、诊治方法及其效果。结果:本组病例中,无功能性胰岛细胞瘤9例,胰岛素瘤12例,其中2例为多发性内分泌腺瘤。前者恶变率为55.6％(5/9),平均年龄为40岁;后者恶变率为8.3％(1/12),平均年龄为39岁。肿瘤位子胰头9例,胰体6例,胰尾6例。术前影像诊断明确肿瘤定位16例(占76.2％),其余5例经术中触摸探查和超声检查得到定位。肿瘤行局部切除术12例,胰体尾切除+胰空肠吻合术6例,肿瘤+脾脏切除术2例,Whipple手术1例。术后胰瘘发生率为33.3％(7/21),其是最常见的并发症,本组无手术死亡。结论:无功能胰岛细胞瘤恶变率显著高于胰岛素瘤(P相似文献   

中段胰腺切除治疗胰颈体部肿瘤13例体会

目的总结中段胰腺切除治疗胰颈体部肿瘤的临床经验。方法对胰颈体部良性或低度恶性肿瘤13例患者行中段胰腺切除术治疗。术中游离胰颈体部切除肿瘤,行Roux-en-Y胰肠吻合或胰胃吻合。单吻合法5例,"Ω"形双吻合法6例,胰胃吻合法2例,胰肠吻合均放置肠造口管充分减压引流。结果切除胰腺平均直径4.3 cm,手术时间(237±43)分钟,出血量(287±75)ml。术后胰瘘2例,出血2例。浆液性囊腺瘤2例,黏液性囊腺瘤1例,实性假乳头状瘤3例,导管内乳头状黏液瘤2例,神经内分泌瘤1例,神经鞘瘤1例,功能性胰岛细胞瘤2例,无功能性胰岛细胞瘤1例。均痊愈出院,平均住院时间(18±5)天,随访9个月~3年未见低血糖和肿瘤复发及新发糖尿病。结论个体化中段胰腺切除术适合胰颈体部良性或低度恶性肿瘤治疗,保护了胰腺内外分泌功能,是一种安全、疗效确切的手术方式。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.