Complications of the pectoralis major osteomyocutaneous flap used for head and neck reconstruction

The analysis of the complications of the pectoralis major osteomyocutaneous flaps used for head and neck reconstruction and how to prevent them is the subject of this report. Ten patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the floor of the mouth who had undergone segmental glossectomy and mandibulectomy, radical uni- or bilateral cervical lymphadenectomy, and immediate reconstruction with the pectoralis major osteomyocutaneous flaps were evaluated. Neither partial nor total necrosis of the myocutaneous segment occurred in any patient but rib necrosis developed in five. An oral fistula occurred in four patients exposing the junction of the rib with the mandible. There were three cases of flap necrosis of the neck dissection. Two patients developed pneumothorax. The overall complication rate was 66.7%. Although this surgery requires major intraoral excision, the tumor is exophytic with previous infection and the patients' general condition debilitated, the incidence of complications is high. Despite the high morbidity, the pectoralis major myocutaneous flap remains a useful adjunct for head and neck reconstruction. The flap is versatile and for many patients repair with a free flap is impossible because of contraindications such as previous irradiation, problems with the vascular anastomoses, advanced age and poor general condition. It also aids in the surgical training of new specialists.     

The pectoralis major muscle in head and neck reconstruction

From June 1980 to June 1985 51 pectoralis major muscle flaps have been used for one-stage reconstruction of extensive defects in the head and neck following cancer surgery. The pectoralis major muscle was used as a myocutaneous flap on 28 occasions, as a muscle covered with split thickness skin on 17 occasions, and as a muscle-only flap six times. The muscle, in its various forms, was used for reconstruction of the pharyngooesophageal segment, the tongue, floor of the mouth and oropharynx, to replace the skin of the face and neck, and to provide a well vascularized recipient bed for a split-rib graft, used to replace a defect of the anterior arch of the mandible. Many of the problems associated with the use of a pectoralis major myocutaneous flap can be avoided by the judicious use of a muscle flap on its own or covered by a split thickness skin graft.     

带肋胸膜的肋骨-胸大肌复合瓣修复晚期舌癌根治术后缺损

目的探讨应用带肋胸膜的肋骨-胸大肌复合瓣联合修复晚期舌癌根治术后软硬组织大型缺损的临床效果和安全性。方法对6例累及同侧口底和下颌骨并越过中线的晚期舌癌患者实施舌颌颈联合根治术,开胸切取以胸肩峰动静脉为血管蒂的带肋胸膜的肋骨（第5肋）．胸大肌复合瓣即刻修复根治术导致的全舌、口底和下颌骨大型复合组织缺损,其中胸大肌肌皮瓣用以重建全舌和口底,肋骨瓣则用以修复患侧下颌骨。结果6例患者术后恢复良好。肋骨．胸大肌复合瓣全部成活,术后口腔、颈部和胸部创面均一期愈合。重建全舌、口底和面下部形态良好,上下颌咬合关系正常,下颌骨无偏斜,语言和吞咽功能基本恢复正常。结论带肋胸膜的肋骨．胸大肌复合瓣修复口腔颌面大型软硬组织缺损安全可靠,开胸切取肋胸膜不会导致患者术后胸廓运动和呼吸功能异常及其他胸肺部并发症,而且制备简便,带肋胸膜确保了肋骨-胸大肌复合瓣中肋骨的血运。     

应用胸大肌岛状肌皮瓣重建全舌体、口底的初步报告

目的 探讨累及双侧的舌癌根治术后全舌体、口底重建的有效方法及临床评价。方法 对2000年10月至2002年12月问我科收治的7例累及双侧的舌癌患者实施根治性手术，造成全舌体、口底的大面积缺损，采用一侧胸大肌岛状肌皮瓣转移即时重建全舌体和双侧口底。结果 6例转移肌皮瓣完全成活，口腔和颈、胸部创面均一期愈合。1例肌皮瓣远端部分皮肤坏死，但无口底颌下瘘和感染等并发症发生。术后随访2～16个月，重建舌体、口底形态基本满意，语言功能大部分恢复，吞咽功能恢复良好。1例在术后9个月死于肿瘤肺转移，其余6例目前均继在。结论 胸大肌岛状肌皮瓣组织量大，血供丰富，是全舌体、口底重建的理想选择。     

Folded, bipaddled composite flap in head and neck reconstruction

A series of 34 patients repaired by folded, bipaddled composite flaps for head and neck cancer surgical defects is presented. Pectoralis major composite flap was used in 33 patients on musculovascular pedicle and 1 patient had a latissimus dorsi composite flap free-tissue transfer. The pectoralis major rib, osteomyocutaneous flap was utilized in 6 patients who had lesions of the mouth floor and anterior mandibular arch. The incorporated rib was used as a vascularized bone graft for the stability of mandibular fragments. Thus, one regional composite flap used in bipaddled fashion enabled the reconstruction of mucosal, skin, and mandibular arch defects.     

Salvage for pectoralis major myocutaneous flap failure in head and neck reconstruction by microvascular flap

Abstract

The pectoralis major myocutaneous pedicled flap (PMMPF) – the “workhorse” for head and neck reconstruction – is associated with a high incidence of complications in certain cases. This study presents free tissue transfer as an alternative salvage technique after PMMPF failure in head and neck reconstruction. It includes seven consecutive patients who underwent free tissue salvage after PMMPF failure in head and neck reconstruction from January 2008 to September 2010 at Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Taiwan. Four vertical rectus abdominis myocutaneous (VRAM) flaps were applied for tongue and mouth floor defects, while three anterolateral thigh (ALT) flaps were used for mouth floor, buccal, and cheek defects. All flaps survived uneventfully, and normal oral feeding was achieved without major complications. Free tissue transfer has several advantages and can be successfully employed in head and neck reconstruction, and it is also a reliable salvage procedure after PMMPF failure in such cases.     

颈阔肌肌皮瓣局部转移术的临床应用研究

目的：研究颈阔肌肌皮瓣移位术整复口腔组织缺损的应用解剖、分类,移位术方法及整复效果。方法：2005年4月～2010年9月,采用颈阔肌肌皮瓣修复口腔内舌、颊、下颌,口底部肿瘤切除后软组织缺损19例（男11例,女8例）,年龄36～80岁,平均46岁。颊粘膜癌6例,舌癌5例,下颌牙龈癌5例,口底癌3例。口腔颊部、舌部、下颌,口底区原发病灶切除后组织缺损范围：长5.0～6.0cm,宽4.5～6.5cm。采用病灶同侧颈阔肌皮瓣切取,行组织移位转入口腔内修复软组织缺损。皮瓣切取范围：长9.5cm,宽4.5cm。结果：经用这种组织瓣移位术方法完成的19例皮瓣手术后成活良好,皮瓣收缩不明显,口腔组织创面、张口度、舌运动度等口腔功能恢复良好。放疗后皮瓣维持原形态,无坏死、无萎缩。随访显示皮瓣长期愈合良好,无萎缩,适应口腔环境,皮肤组织粘膜化。供瓣区存在瘢痕,部分患者存在轻度影响头、颈部运动。结论：颈阔肌肌皮瓣血供明确、解剖恒定;邻近口腔组织缺损部位;皮瓣质地、范围适合口腔缺损整复,移位术后皮瓣成活稳定。     

Pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap with nipple-areola complex in head and neck reconstruction: preliminary results of a new modified method

Pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap remains the workhorse tool for head and neck reconstruction. Flap failure in head and neck reconstruction is a devastating complication with a high morbidity and mortality. Inclusion of nipple-areola complex on the skin paddle stabilizes the blood circulation in the skin island of the pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap. A modified use of pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap with nipple-areola complex on the skin island was performed in 11 male patients in head and neck reconstructions with success without partial or total skin island necrosis.We recommend the inclusion of nipple-areola complex on the skin island of the pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstructions to increase the blood supply of the skin paddle. We concluded that the skin island of the pectoralis major musculocutaneous flap might include the areola and nipple complex in patients with large defects of the head and neck, which stabilize the blood circulation in the skin island.     

The submental island flap in head and neck reconstruction

BACKGROUND: The submental island flap (SIF) is a new alternative in the reconstruction of various head and neck defects. We present our preliminary experience in the use of this flap and describe the surgical technique. METHODS: Nine patients underwent reconstruction with the SIF between January 1998 and July 1999. The SIF has been used for the reconstruction of the cervical esophageal stenosis in 2 patients, floor of mouth and tongue defects in 6 patients, and a hemilaryngectomy defect in 1 patient. RESULTS: With the exception of one partial flap loss caused by arterial insufficiency, no flap failures were observed. All the donor site defects but one were closed primarily. One patient who underwent reconstruction of a hemilaryngectomy defect underwent revision surgery because of intractable hair growth on the transferred skin paddle. Marginal mandibular nerve function was intact in all the cases. CONCLUSIONS: When combined with the reported experience of other surgeons, our preliminary experience showed that the SIF was an excellent alternative in the reconstruction of head and neck defects because of its reliability, versatility, and relative ease of application.     

舌癌连续整块切除血管化（肌）皮瓣修复重建术后的功能评价

目的评价舌癌连续整块切除同期行血管化（肌）皮瓣修复舌缺损后的语音、咀嚼功能。方法行手术治疗后6～18个月的舌癌患者共47例,其中行前臂皮瓣修复20例（前臂组,半舌以内14例,半舌以上16例）,股前外侧肌皮瓣修复27例（股前外侧组,半舌以内15例,半舌以上10例,全舌2例）。采用两因素两水平的析因设计与方差分析比较其语音和咀嚼效率;采用W ilcoxon秩和检验分析比较两个皮瓣组术后的舌颌沟深度改变值。结果与前臂皮瓣组比较,股前外侧组的舌颌沟深度改变值较小（P=0.000）,咀嚼效率较优（P=0.035）,但语音清晰度较低（P=0.006）。结论股前外侧皮瓣修复更有利于舌癌患者术后的咀嚼和进食,但前臂皮瓣短期内更有利于语音的恢复。     

The folded, bipaddled pectoralis major composite flap in oral cancer reconstruction

We report on the pectoralis major composite (musculocutaneous or rib osteomusculocutaneous) flap used in bipaddled fashion for one-stage immediate reconstruction in 53 patients with oral cancer. Of these, 44 patients had lesions of buccal mucosa and lateral lower alveolus, and 9 patients had lesions of floor of mouth and middle third of lower alveolus. In one patient this flap was used as a free composite tissue transfer in bipaddled fashion. The flap can be used either before or after radiotherapy in oral cancer and provides both lining mucosa and skin cover. If necessary, a rib (vascularised bone graft) incorporated with this composite flap can give skeletal support for mandibular arch reconstruction.     

Articulatory function and tongue mobility after surgery followed by radiotherapy for tongue and floor of the mouth cancer patients.

The aim of this study was to determine which of the following factors--size of the post-excisional defect, site of the defect and type of reconstruction--influence tongue mobility and articulation disorders after treatment for cancer of the tongue and floor of the mouth. A total of 60 patients, who had been evaluated at least 6 months after surgery followed by radiotherapy (60 Gy in 30 fractions), were evaluated. According to the size of the post-excisional defect patients were divided into two groups: (1) defect less than 5 cm (35); (2) defect more than 5 cm (25). Based on the localisation of the defect patients were also divided into two groups: (1) anterior tongue and/or floor of the mouth (30); (2) lateral tongue and/or floor of the mouth (25) and tongue base (5). According to the type of reconstruction patients were divided into three groups: partly reconstructed (18); reconstructed with locally available tissue--local flaps (27); and with pectoralis major myocutaneous (PMMC) flaps (15). Articulation proficiency was assessed through Articulation Test and tongue mobility through Tongue Mobility Test. According to results of this study, type of reconstruction followed by size of post-excisional defect seemed to be the most influential factor in tongue mobility and articulation disorders after the tongue and floor of the mouth cancer treatment. Site of the defect has no influence.     

胸大肌肌皮瓣与钛板联合修复口腔癌根治术后的下颌骨缺损

目的探讨胸大肌肌皮瓣与钛板联合即刻修复口腔癌根治术后的下颌骨缺损的效果。方法2001年11月~2003年2月,对32例口腔癌根治术后下颌骨缺损患者,其中11例下颌牙龈癌行龈颌颈联合根治术,13例舌癌行舌颌颈联合根治术,4例口底癌行口底颌颈联合根治术,4例颊粘膜癌行颊颌颈联合根治术。术后遗留下颌骨缺损长度4~12 cm,邻近软组织缺损范围5.5 cm×7.6 cm~8.2 cm×10.5 cm,采用大小为6 cm×7 cm~9 cm×10 cm带蒂胸大肌肌皮瓣与钛板即刻修复。通过回顾性研究,分析其修复效果。结果术后肌皮瓣29例全部成活,3例有小部分皮岛坏死。均获随访2~19个月,27例面部外形基本满意,5例呈轻度不对称畸形;余留的上下颌牙咬牙合关系、咀嚼功能恢复良好;张口度2.7~3.4 cm;未出现与手术相关的颞颌关节疾病。结论胸大肌肌皮瓣与钛板联合应用是修复口腔癌根治术后伴较多软组织缺损和下颌骨节段性缺损较理想的方法。     

Management of necrotic neck wounds with a "sandwich" pectoralis myocutaneous flap

A modified pectoralis major myocutaneous flap was used to stabilize necrotic neck wounds rapidly in irradiated patients. The flap was a "sandwich" flap that included an overlying "parasternal" pectoral skin paddle for pharyngeal reconstruction, the pectoralis muscle for carotid protection, and a meshed skin graft applied to the undersurface of the muscle to replace cervical skin. This flap has been used to reconstruct seven patients with severe wound necrosis from pharyngeal fistula and infection. All patients had carotid exposure in the infected wound. Reconstruction in all patients accomplished restoration of pharyngeal continuity, carotid protection, and cervical skin replacement. Some patients required more than one procedure for closure. There were no carotid "blowouts" in any of the patients. This technique enables the head and neck surgeon to stabilize these contaminated wounds rapidly and to reconstruct complex defects of the pharynx and cervical skin.     

The infrahyoid musculocutaneous flap in head and neck reconstruction

The infrahyoid musculocutaneous flap (IHMF), as first described by Wang in 1986, is mainly nourished by the superior thyroid vessels through the perforators of the infrahyoid muscles (i.e., sternohyoid muscle, sternothyroid muscle, superior belly of the omohyoid muscle). This thin flap, usually extending from the hyoid bone to the sternal notch at the central part of the anterior neck, provides a skin island of about 4 by 8 cm. After these muscles have been divided from their origins, the flap can be freely transferred on its pedicle of superior thyroid artery to cover the soft tissue defect created after surgical ablation of cancer of the midface, parotid region, oral cavity, oropharnyx, or hypopharynx. From April 1987 to October 1990, our department successfully performed this flap procedure in 22 patients (cancer of the buccal mucosa 8, lower gum 5, floor of mouth 2, tongue 2, lower lip 2, parotid gland 1, skin 1, hemangioma of buccal mucosa 1). Two were treatment failures, three had partial dermal necrosis (distal third of flap surface), and the remainder had no major complications. The donor sites were closed either primarily or by means of a small, local skin flap. Contraindications to the flap are previous thyroid surgery, radical neck dissection, irradiation to the anterior neck, and hairy neck skin. We believe our results indicate that the IHMF is a versatile, reliable flap that may be used in combination with other regional flaps, such as the pectoralis major flap. It obviates the need for a microvascular free flap in many cases.     

股前外侧皮瓣和前臂皮瓣在头颈部组织缺损修复中的比较

目的 报道股前外侧皮瓣和前臂皮瓣在头颈部缺损修复中的临床效果和优缺点. 方法 分别采用前臂皮瓣和股前外侧皮瓣修复头颈部缺损32例.其中应用前臂皮瓣20例,修复口颊部洞穿性缺损7例、环下咽缺损4例、上腭缺损2例、腮腺区皮肤缺损1例、口底缺损4例,舌根部缺损2例,股前外侧皮瓣12例,分别用于修复舌根部缺损3例,上腭缺损4例,口底、下牙龈缺损5例.对比两组的皮瓣存活情况、修复后功能状况和对供区的影响,分析其优缺点和技术要点.结果 前臂皮瓣完全存活19例,发生血管危象2例.1例经保守治疗后完全存活,1例再次手术后皮瓣表皮坏死.股前外侧皮瓣12例均完全存活,无血管危象发生.原计划行股前外侧皮瓣修复术14例中有2例因皮瓣制备失败而放弃并改用前臂皮瓣.股前外侧继发缺损均可直接拉拢缝合,前臂继发缺损均需植皮. 结论 股前外侧皮瓣和前臂皮瓣移植均有较高成功率,但各有优缺点,修复手段的选择宜根据缺损情况和修复目的灵活使用.     

MANAGEMENT OF NECROTIC NECK WOUNDS WITH A “SANDWICH” PECTORALIS MYOCUTANEOUS FLAP

A modified pectoralis major myocutaneous flap was used to stabilize necrotic neck wounds rapidly in irradiated patients. The flap was a “sandwich” flap that included an overlying “parasternal” pectoral skin paddle for pharyngeal reconstruction, the pectoralis muscle for carotid protection, and a meshed skin graft applied to the undersurface of the muscle to replace cervical skin. This flap has been used to reconstruct seven patients with severe wound necrosis from pharyngeal fistula and infection. All patients had carotid exposure in the infected wound. Reconstruction in all patients accomplished restoration of pharyngeal continuity, carotid protection, and cervical skin replacement. Some patients required more than one procedure for closure. There were no carotid “blowouts” in any of the patients. This technique enables the head and neck surgeon to stabilize these contaminated wounds rapidly and to reconstruct complex defects of the pharynx and cervical skin.     

上斜方肌皮瓣骨肌皮瓣的解剖和修复口腔颌面部缺损的临床应用

目的 观察上斜方肌皮瓣、骨肌皮瓣的血供和探讨修复颌面部缺损临床应用的可行性。方法 用32例成人颈部标本,对上斜方肌皮瓣、骨肌皮瓣的营养血管、行径、分支分布等进行解剖观察,并设计上斜方肌皮瓣、骨肌皮瓣,采用带蒂的方式应用于临床共18例,其中修复颊部缺损8例,舌再造3例,修复口底缺损4例,修复下颌骨缺损3例。结果 上斜方肌和肩胛冈是由颈横动脉分出的颈浅动脉升支和肩胛冈支营养。临床应用除1例皮瓣面积过大有少许皮肤坏死外,所有皮瓣均成活良好,修复效果满意。结论 该皮瓣具有血管解剖位置恒定,血供丰富,皮瓣面积大,手术方便,易成活等优点,适合于颌面部组织缺损的修复。     

Preservation of lateral thoracic artery to improve vascular supply of distal skin without compromising pedicle length in harvesting pectoralis major myocutaneous flap.

The pectoralis major myocutaneous (PM) flap is supplied by three arterial systems. The lower chest skin of the PM flap is mainly supplied by the branches of lateral thoracic artery and internal mammary artery. The conventional harvesting technique for head and neck reconstruction utilizes single arterial supply from the pectoral branch of thoracoacromial artery. The distal skin island of PM flap is therefore compromised and requires indirect blood supply by communicating vessels. In harvesting the PM flap, the pectoralis minor muscle is divided to preserve the lateral thoracic artery and its blood supply to the lateral distal skin island of PM flap without compromising the pedicle length for head and neck reconstruction. Six PM flaps were harvested for reconstruction of head and neck defects with preservation of both the pectoral artery and lateral thoracic artery. The focal pint of swing of all six flaps was at the same point just below the mid-point of clavicle for both pectoral artery and lateral thoracic artery. The flaps can reach the oral cavity, tonsil or hypopharynx without limitation and there is no flap necrosis. In conclusion, the lateral thoracic artery can be preserved without compromising the pedicle length of PM flap. It is a recommended technique to improve the blood supply to the distal skin of PM flap.     

Reinnervated radial forearm free flaps in head and neck reconstruction.

The radial forearm flap has proved to be a reliable free flap for intraoral reconstruction after major head and neck ablative surgery for cancer. In contrast to the myocutaneous flap, it is thin and flexible, and as a result, it is better suited to conforming to the irregular surface which remains over an intact or restored mandible. A criticism of both techniques however, is that while the flap effectively fills the defect, it serves as an insensate reservoir in which food and saliva can collect. A modification of the reinnervated radial forearm free flap is presented, with discussion of its use in three patients, following extensive resection of the floor of the mouth and tongue.