Identification,prevention and management of post-partum haemorrhage

Obstetric haemorrhage, and in particular PPH, remains the leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Historically the impact of PPH has been most significant in low resource settings, however recent data suggests both the rate of PPH and number of maternal deaths due to haemorrhage are on the rise in the UK. Prevention and rapid recognition and management of PPH by clinicians, is key to mitigate the ensuing maternal morbidity and mortality. This article aims to provide an overview of important conservative, medical and surgical strategies for the prevention and management of PPH and to highlight the existing gaps in current literature to direct future work.     

Surgical management of postpartum hemorrhage

When medical management of PPH is unsuccessful, surgical options should be utilized in a timely fashion in order to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality. This chapter describes ways of effective preparation, mobilization of resources and an organized approach to evaluation and surgical amelioration of PPH. Multiple fertility preserving surgical techniques to control PPH are described. Although a variety of conservative surgical approaches can be used in the setting of PPH, in a hemodynamically unstable patient, readiness for definitive management with a hysterectomy is necessary in order to reduce the risk of maternal mortality.     

阴道分娩及剖宫产产后出血预警及防范

产后出血是产科常见且严重的并发症之一,是产妇死亡的首要原因。产后出血患者通常在产前即存在一种或多种高危因素,引起产后出血主要包括子宫收缩乏力、胎盘因素、软产道损伤、凝血功能异常四大因素。因此,所有产科工作者都应当重视防治产后出血,及早发现高危因素,及时处理,从而降低产后出血的发生率。     

The impact of post-partum haemorrhage in “near-miss” morbidity and mortality in developing countries

The global maternal mortality ratio (MMR) of 400 per 100,000 live births results in an estimated 529,000 maternal deaths annually. Most of these deaths occur in developing countries and only about 1% in developed countries. Besides mortality data, the identification and accurate documentation of “near-miss” morbidity (a more sensitive index) is extremely important to assess the quality of health care systems. It can suitably guide to adopt appropriate measures to reduce maternal mortality and morbidity. Haemorrhage remains a major cause of maternal mortality in both developing and developed countries followed by anaemia and infection, which are more common in developing countries. Post-partum haemorrhage (PPH) is a frequent complication of delivery. PPH occurred in 10.5% of all live births worldwide resulting in 13,795,000 cases in the year 2000. The case fatality rate for PPH was 1% and there were 132,000 deaths attributable to PPH. Anaemia as a consequence of PPH was estimated to occur in 1.6 million women every year. Thus, the prevention and adequate management of obstetric haemorrhage are likely to result in a significant reduction in the MMR and in the less frequently monitored “near-miss” morbidity. Strategies to be adopted with regard to PPH in developing countries may differ from those routinely available and practised in developed countries because of limited access to health care facilities and low institutional delivery rate in the former countries. Some low cost, simple techniques to prevent and manage PPH are described. These need to be tested in a wider population to determine which is most suitable for a particular area or country. The mortality and “near-miss” morbidity data should be continually assessed and only then will the impact of these strategies be known. First level midwifery care plus backup by well-equipped hospitals must be developed concomitantly. Anyone can conduct a normal delivery when all is going well but only those with good clinical judgement and the necessary skills will be able to anticipate and manage a problem. This is especially important in the context of PPH where the under-estimation of blood loss coupled with the rapidity of development of serious consequences is the key issue.     

产后出血及其临床救治

产后出血是一种常见的并发症,是产妇发病率和死亡率的主要原因。产后出血有许多潜在的原因,但最常见的是子宫收缩乏力。所有产科工作人员和参与孕产妇保健的工作人员,必须有一个产后出血的预防和管理的明确计划。应当记住:一到位,两个重视,三个正确,提高产后出血救治水平。     

产后出血的保守性手术治疗

产后出血是分娩期常见而且严重的并发症,在药物和子宫按摩不能控制出血时,需采取手术干预。保守性手术是指保留子宫的手术方法,包括血管结扎、宫腔填塞压迫止血、子宫压迫缝合等。B-Lynch缝合技术在产后出血的保守性手术治疗中具有里程碑式的意义,并且由此改良出多种子宫压迫缝合方法。这些技术各有利弊和不同的适应证,根据产后出血的不同原因选择合适的保守性手术方式,才能达到良好止血和减少并发症的目的。     

Balloon tamponade in the management of postpartum haemorrhage: a review

Obstetric haemorrhage is a significant contributor to worldwide maternal morbidity and mortality. Guidelines for the management of postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) involve a stepwise escalation of pharmacological and eventual surgical approaches. The method of uterine tamponade using balloons has recently been added to the armamentarium for managing PPH. There are various balloons available including the Bakri, Foley, Sengstaken–Blakemore, Rusch and condom catheter. This paper reviews these uterine tamponade technologies in the management of PPH.     

Peripartum hemorrhage.

This article has reviewed the causes and potential therapies for PPH. These include both predictable and unpreventable causes and methods of differential diagnosis. Triage of therapeutic interventions and prompt diagnosis are critical in reducing morbidity and mortality caused by PPH.     

A new uterine compression suture for postpartum haemorrhage with atony

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a major cause of worldwide maternal mortality and is still associated with significant morbidity. After the B-Lynch suture was reported in 1997, several different uterine compression sutures were found to be successful in controlling PPH. In this paper, we describe another simple variation of the uterine compression suture technique, which was performed without an incision in the uterine wall, without entering the uterine cavity and without suturing the anterior and posterior walls of the uterus together, so minimising the trauma to the uterus. This new uterine compression suture is an effective and safe surgical treatment for PPH caused by atony. It has the potential to apply to intractable PPH after vaginal delivery.     

Community-level intimate partner violence and the circumstances of first sex among young women from five African countries

Background

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal mortality and severe maternal morbidity. The Non-pneumatic Anti-Shock Garment (NASG), a first-aid lower-body compression device, may decrease adverse outcomes from obstetric hemorrhage. This article is the first to report the effect of the NASG for PPH.

Methods

This pre-intervention/NASG study of 854 women was conducted in four referral facilities in Nigeria and two in Egypt between 2004-2008. Entry criteria were women with PPH due to uterine atony, retained placenta, ruptured uterus, vaginal or cervical lacerations or placenta accreta with estimated blood loss of ≥ 750 mL and one clinical sign of shock. Differences in demographics, conditions on study entry, treatment and outcomes were examined. The Wilcoxon rank-sum test and relative risks with 95% confidence intervals were calculated for primary outcomes - measured blood loss, emergency hysterectomy, mortality, morbidity (each individually), and a combined variable, "adverse outcomes", defined as severe morbidity and mortality. A multiple logistic regression model was fitted to test the independent association between the NASG and the combined severe morbidity and mortality outcome.

Results

Measured blood loss decreased by 50% between phases; women experienced 400 mL of median blood loss after study entry in the pre-intervention and 200 mL in the NASG phase (p < 0.0001). As individual outcomes, mortality decreased from 9% pre-intervention to 3.1% in the NASG phase (RR 0.35, 95% CI 0.19-0.62); severe morbidity decreased from 4.2% to 1%, in the NASG phase (RR 0.24, 95% CI 0.09-0.67). As a combination, "adverse outcomes," decreased from 12.8% to 4.1% in the NASG phase (RR 0.32, 95% CI 0.19-0.53). In a multiple logistic regression model, the NASG was associated with the combined outcome of severe maternal morbidity and mortality (OR 0.42, 95% CI 0.18-0.99).

Conclusion

In this non-randomized study, in which bias is inherent, the NASG showed promise for reducing blood loss, emergency hysterectomy, morbidity and mortality associated with PPH in referral facilities in Egypt and Nigeria.     

Postpartum hemorrhage: a recurring pregnancy complication

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a potentially life-threatening complication of both vaginal and cesarean deliveries. Although many variables increase the chance for bleeding, a PPH in a previous pregnancy is one of the greatest risk factors for recurrent PPH. A physiologic explanation for this association is not known, but recurrent risk factors such as a retained placenta or underlying medical disorders may account for the majority of recurrent PPH cases. To reduce maternal morbidity and mortality, prevention of PPH in these patients is critical. Steps to minimize hemorrhagic complications include the identification of high-risk patients through a complete history, vigilant management of the third stage of labor, and having uterotonic medications readily available in the delivery room. Patients with inherited coagulopathies require individualized treatment, and their risks for bleeding extend beyond the first 24 hours after delivery. Further studies are needed to determine whether the administration of prophylactic measures such as prostaglandins decrease the PPH occurrence in high-risk patients.     

Postpartum hemorrhage--update on problems of definitions and diagnosis

Maternal mortality due to postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) continues to be one of the most important causes of maternal death worldwide. PPH is a significantly underestimated obstetric problem, primarily because a lack of definition and diagnosis. The 'traditional' definition of primary PPH based on quantification of blood loss has several limitations. Notoriously, blood loss is not measured or is significantly underestimated by visual estimation and there are no generally accepted cut-offs limits for estimated blood loss. A definition based on hematocrit change is not clinically useful in an emergency such as PPH, as a fall in hematocrit postpartum shows poor correlation with acute blood loss. The need for erythrocyte transfusion alone to define PPH is also of limited value, as the practice of blood transfusion varies widely. Definitions based on symptoms of hemodynamic instability are problematic, as they are late signs of depleted blood volume and commencing failure of compensatory mechanisms threatening the mother's life. There is thus currently no single, satisfactory definition of primary PPH. Proper and timely diagnosis of PPH should above all include accurate estimation of blood loss before vital signs change. Estimation of blood loss by calibrated bags has been shown to be significantly more accurate than visual estimation at vaginal delivery. Careful monitoring of the mother's vital signs, laboratory tests, in particular coagulation testing, and immediate diagnosis of the cause of PPH are important key factors to reduce maternal morbidity and mortality.     

Postpartum haemorrhage and haematological management

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality worldwide. Recent report of the Centre for Maternal and Child Enquiries (CMACE) in the United Kingdom, which was previously called Confidential Enquiries into Maternal and Child Health (CEMACH), confirmed a reduction in maternal deaths during the last Triennium (2006–2008). This is attributed to improvements in timely diagnosis and prompt and aggressive treatment. PPH is now the sixth most common direct cause of maternal deaths in the U.K. World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that postpartum haemorrhage accounts for 25% of maternal deaths worldwide. Substandard care and ‘too little being done too late’ remain a significant contributor of maternal deaths.Primary PPH refers to a blood loss from the genital tract of 500 ml or more within 24 h of delivery (or >1000 ml during caesarean section). Secondary PPH refers to an excessive blood loss between 24 h and 6 weeks after birth. Massive PPH refers to a blood loss of over 2000 ml (or >30% of blood volume) and is associated with increased maternal morbidity and mortality. A timely, multi-disciplinary and systematic approach to restore the volume, clotting system and the oxygen carrying capacity of blood, whilst steps are taken to arrest bleeding, is essential to save life.Primary postpartum haemorrhage is caused by uterine atony, genital tract trauma, retained placental tissue and membranes after birth or coagulopathy. The latter may not only be a cause of PPH, but also could be an effect of massive haemorrhage due to a ‘washout phenomenon’. Rapid and profuse bleeding results in loss of platelets and clotting factors, that get ‘washed out’. This may lead to a depletion of coagulation factors and resultant bleeding.     

阴道分娩产后出血原因识别及防治

产后出血是产妇死亡的主要原因,阴道分娩时软产道撕裂是导致产后出血的重要环节,应当及时识别,认真处理,积极防控。应当记住:失血量评估要到位;重视高危产妇,重视团队协作;正确按摩子宫,正确使用药物,正确选择手术。     

Medical and Conservative Surgical Management of Postpartum Hemorrhage

Massive postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is a major cause of maternal mortality in the United Kingdom and worldwide. Life-threatening PPH occurs with a frequency of I in 1000 deliveries in the developed world. In the latest triennial Why Mothers Die: Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom (1997–1999), PPH was the fifth most common cause of maternal mortality. In this review, we discuss the role of medical management in primary PPH and the use of the “tamponade test” when such management fails. The less radical surgical options discussed include uterine compression sutures, uterine or internal iliac artery ligation, and arterial embolization, all of which have the advantage of potentially preserving reproductive function. Radical surgical options, including subtotal or total hysterectomy, are not discussed in this review. A systematic or algorithmic method of tackling the problem is described. The suggested management approach is likely to reduce maternal morbidity from bleeding, hysterectomies, and maternal deaths.     

A continuum of care model for postpartum hemorrhage

The leading cause of maternal mortality is hemorrhage, generally occurring in the postpartum period. Current levels of PPH-related morbidity and mortality in low-resource settings result from institutional, environmental, cultural and social barriers to providing skilled care and preventing, diagnosing and treating PPH. Conventional uterotonics to prevent PPH are typically not available or practical for use in low-resource settings. In such deliveries, most often taking place at home or in rural health centers, underestimation of blood loss leads to a delay in diagnosis. Deficiencies in communication and transportation infrastructure impede transfer to a higher level of care. Inability to stabilize a patient who is in hemorrhagic shock rapidly results in death. To address these individual factors, we propose a continuum of care model for PPH, including routine use of prophylactic misoprostol or other appropriate uterotonic, a standardized means of blood loss assessment, availability of a non-pneumatic anti-shock garment, and systemization of communication, transportation, and referral. Such a multifaceted, systematic, contextualized PPH continuum of care approach may have the greatest impact for saving women's lives. This model should be developed and tested to be region-specific.     

Postpartum hemorrhage and transfusion of blood and blood components

Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is one of the top 5 causes of maternal mortality in developed and developing countries. The incidence of PPH is 40% after vaginal delivery and 30% after cesarean section. Criteria for PPH are based on the amount of blood loss. In clinical obstetrics, exact measurement of blood loss is often difficult. The most important treatment of PPH is red blood cell (RBC) transfusion. In the past few years, increasing concern has arisen about this treatment. Despite the introduction of several new guidelines, transfusion criteria still vary widely between clinicians. The decision whether to prescribe RBC transfusion is mostly based on postpartum hemoglobin (Hb) values. RBC transfusion should be aimed to reduce morbidity and especially to improve health-related quality of life (HRQoL). In this review, etiology, epidemiology, treatment, and prevention of postpartum hemorrhage are described. Special attention is given to the role of RBC transfusion in the treatment of PPH and the effects of RBC transfusion on HRQoL. TARGET AUDIENCE:: Obstetricians & Gynecologists, Family Physicians. LEARNING OBJECTIVES.: After completion of this article, the reader should be able to summarize the new guidelines related to transfusion criteria, explain the importance of reducing morbidity related to improving quality of life issues, and list infectious and noninfectious complications of a red blood cell transfusion.     

Risk management and medicolegal issues related to postpartum haemorrhage

Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) is a major cause of maternal mortality and morbidity. Despite several local and national guidelines and recommendations, the incidence of major obstetric haemorrhage has not declined significantly over the years. A high proportion of these cases involve patient safety incidents. The major themes in such incidents are: delay in diagnosis, failure to adhere to protocols, lack of consultant supervision, communication and documentation problems, inefficient teamwork and organizational failure. This chapter deals with ways of identifying the major contributory factors for adverse events associated with PPH and suggests solutions to minimize errors.     

Obstetric hemorrhage and coagulation: an update. Thromboelastography, thromboelastometry, and conventional coagulation tests in the diagnosis and prediction of postpartum hemorrhage

Globally, postpartum hemorrhage (PPH) is the leading cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. In the current treatment of severe PPH, first-line therapy includes transfusion of packed cells and fresh-frozen plasma in addition to uterotonic medical management and surgical interventions. In persistent PPH, tranexamic acid, fibrinogen, and coagulation factors are often administered. Secondary coagulopathy due to PPH or its treatment is often underestimated and therefore remains untreated, potentially causing progression to even more severe PPH. In most cases, medical and transfusion therapy is not based on the actual coagulation state because conventional laboratory test results are usually not available for 45 to 60 minutes. Thromboelastography and rotational thromboelastometry are point-of-care coagulation tests. A good correlation has been shown between thromboelastometric and conventional coagulation tests, and the use of these in massive bleeding in nonobstetric patients is widely practiced and it has been proven to be cost-effective. As with conventional laboratory tests, there is an influence of fluid dilution on coagulation test results, which is more pronounced with colloid fluids. Fibrinogen seems to play a major role in the course of PPH and can be an early predictor of the severity of PPH. The FIBTEM values (in thromboelastometry, reagent specific for the fibrin polymerization process) decline even more rapidly than fibrinogen levels and can be useful for early guidance of interventions. Data on thromboelastography and thromboelastometry in pregnant women are limited, particularly during the peripartum period and in women with PPH, so more research in this field is needed.     

Factors associated with acute postpartum hemorrhage in low-risk women delivering in rural India.

OBJECTIVE: Postpartum hemorrhage (PPH), a major cause of maternal mortality and morbidity in low-income countries, can occur unpredictably. This study examined the sociodemographic, clinical, and perinatal characteristics of low-risk women who experienced PPH. METHODS: This analysis was conducted using data on 1620 women from a randomized trial testing oral misoprostol for prevention of PPH in rural India. RESULTS: Of the women, 9.2% experienced PPH. No maternal or sociodemographic factors and few perinatal factors differed between women with PPH and those without, other than treatment with misoprostol. Having fewer than 4 prenatal visits and lack of iron supplementation increased the risk for PPH (P<0.001 and P=0.037, respectively). Several factors unknown until the second stage of labor (perineal tear and birth weight) were also associated (P=0.003). CONCLUSIONS: Among women at low risk for PPH, there were few factors associated with further risk. Given that PPH can occur without warning, rural communities should consider ways to increase both primary prevention (iron supplementation, AMTSL) and secondary prevention of PPH (availability of obstetric first aid, availability of transport, and availability of emergency obstetric care).