Progression of lower-extremity disability in older women with diabetes: the Women's Health and Aging Study

OBJECTIVE: Older patients with diabetes are more likely to have a higher prevalence of multiple risk factors for physical disability, as a result of diabetic complications. We evaluated the pace of decline in lower-extremity function and the risk for progression of disability in older women with diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: We conducted a 3-year longitudinal cohort study of a random sample of 729 physically impaired older women (age > or =65 years) living in the community (Baltimore, MD). Diabetes was ascertained by standard criteria. Self-reported functional status and objective performance measures were assessed at baseline and over six semiannual follow-up visits. RESULTS: The baseline prevalence of diabetes was 14.4%. After adjustment for age and compared with women without diabetes, those with diabetes had an RR of 1.8 (95% CI 1.3-2.5) for incident mobility disability and 1.6 (1.2-2.1) for incident activity of daily living disability. The increased incidence of new disability associated with diabetes was paralleled by a greater decline in objective measures of lower-extremity function. Adjustment for multiple risk factors for disability did not significantly attenuate the risk for disability associated with diabetes. CONCLUSIONS: In older patients, impaired lower-extremity function is a long-term diabetic complication. Comprehensive assessment of older diabetic patients should include a standardized evaluation of lower-extremity performance.     

The lower extremity activity profile: a health status instrument for measuring lower extremity disability

The Lower Extremity Activity Profile (LEAP) is a comprehensive measure of lower extremity function. It measures the client's perception of difficulty and satisfaction with performance in the following areas: self care, mobility, household activities, work, leisure activities, and social activities. The development and initial reliability and validity testing of LEAP was conducted with 32 osteoarthritis clients undergoing total knee replacement. Using a one-group repeated measures design, the LEAP, knee range of motion and self-paced walk measures were administered pre-operatively and 3 months post-operatively. The internal consistency of the LEAP using Cronbach's Alpha was 0.73. All LEAP scores showed significant improvement (p<0.01) between the two administration times demonstrating responsiveness of the measure. Correlations of LEAP with the clinical measures were moderate. LEAP is recommended for use as an outcome measure in similar populations, if used in conjunction with clinical and physical performance measures. Further testing of the LEAP is warranted for use in evaluating outcomes of rehabilitation programs addressing lower extremity musculoskeletal impairment and disability.     

Hemiplegia and lower extremity amputation: double disability

A retrospective study of 52 consecutive patients was conducted to determine the influence of certain factors on the ambulatory rehabilitation of patients with hemiplegia and lower extremity amputation. Factors studied included side of hemiplegia, laterality of disability, level of amputation, order of disability (amputation first or hemiplegia first), neuromuscular status, mental status, sex, age. The level of function was defined as independent, limited, or nonambulatory. Of 52 double-disability patients, thirty were fitted with a prosthesis. Eight patients attained independent prosthetic function while 16 patients were limited and six were nonambulatory. Factors such as ipsilateral BK amputation preceding hemiplegia, a good-to-fair neuromuscular status, and an intact mental status have been associated with better functional results. Although producing higher fitting rates, none of these factors has been found in the present study to be associated with statistically higher levels of ambulatory function. A good-to-fair neuromuscular status seemed to be the prime requisite for good ambulation with a prosthesis in a patient with the double disability of amputation and hemiplegia.     

The association between pain and disability

A clearer understanding of how pain intensity relates to disability could have important implications for pain treatment goals and definitions of treatment success. The objectives of this study were to determine the optimal pain intensity rating (0-10 scale) cutpoints for discriminating disability levels among individuals with work-related carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) and low back (LB) injuries, whether these cutpoints differed for these conditions and for different disability measures, and whether the relationship between pain intensity and disability was linear in each injury group. Approximately 3 weeks after filing work injury claims, 2183 workers (1059 CTS; 1124 LB) who still had pain completed pain and disability measures. In the LB group, pain intensity rating categories of 1-4, 5-6, and 7-10 optimally discriminated disability levels for all four disability measures examined. In the CTS group, no pain intensity rating categorization scheme proved superior across all disability measures. For all disability measures examined, the relationship between pain intensity and disability level was linear in the CTS group, but nonlinear in the LB group. Among study participants with work-related back injuries, when pain level was 1-4, a decrease in pain of more than 1-point corresponded to clinically meaningful improvement in functioning, but when pain was rated as 5-10, a 2-point decrease was necessary for clinically meaningful improvement in functioning. The findings indicate that classifying numerical pain ratings into categories corresponding to levels of disability may be useful in establishing treatment goals, but that classification schemes must be validated separately for different pain conditions.     

The association between lower extremity energy absorption and biomechanical factors related to anterior cruciate ligament injury

Background

Greater total energy absorption by the lower extremity musculature during landing may reduce stresses placed on capsuloligamentous tissues with differences in joint contributions to energy absorption potentially affecting anterior cruciate ligament injury risk. However, the relationships between energy absorption and prospectively identified biomechanical factors associated with non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury have yet to be demonstrated.

Methods

Sagittal plane total, hip, knee and ankle energy absorption, and peak vertical ground reaction force, anterior tibial shear force, knee flexion and knee valgus angles, and internal hip extension and knee varus moments were measured in 27 individuals (14 females, 13 males) performing double leg jump landings. Correlation coefficients assessed the relationships between energy absorption during three time intervals (initial impact phase, terminal phase, and total landing) and biomechanical factors related to anterior cruciate ligament injury.

Findings

More favorable values of biomechanical factors related to non-contact anterior cruciate ligament injury were associated with: 1) Lesser total (R² = 0.178–0.558), hip (R² = 0.229–0.651) and ankle (R² = 0.280), but greater knee (R² = 0.147) energy absorption during the initial impact phase; 2) Greater total (R² = 0.170–0.845), hip (R² = 0.599), knee (R² = 0.236–0.834), and ankle (R² = 0.276) energy absorption during the terminal phase of landing; and 3) Greater knee (R² = 0.158–0.709), but lesser hip (R² = 0.309) and ankle (R² = 0.210–0.319) energy absorption during the total landing period.

Interpretation

These results suggest that biomechanical factors related to anterior cruciate ligament injury are influenced by both the magnitude and timing of lower extremity energy absorption during landing.     

Adiposity assessment: explaining the association between obesity, hypertension and stroke

Obesity is associated with a greater prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and a higher risk of cardiovascular events, and contributes to the rise in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Increased BMI is established as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Attention has recently been drawn to alternate measures of adiposity/obesity, such as waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio, that provide information regarding body fat distribution. Although BMI is the established clinical measurement to estimate CVD risk associated with excess bodyweight, there is evidence suggesting that abdominal obesity could represent a better marker of CVD risk than BMI. It is now recognized that abdominally obese individuals tend to have higher blood pressure. A major cardiovascular risk factor associated with stroke is systemic hypertension followed closely by obesity. Clinical adiposity indices used to describe obesity linked with systemic hypertension and stroke incidence are reviewed in this article. In summary, BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio measurements are all useful tools for assessing adiposity/obesity in clinical practice, and should be evaluated with other cardiometabolic risk factors to refine cardiovascular risk stratification.     

Adiposity assessment: explaining the association between obesity,hypertension and stroke

Obesity is associated with a greater prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors and a higher risk of cardiovascular events, and contributes to the rise in cardiovascular morbidity and mortality worldwide. Increased BMI is established as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Attention has recently been drawn to alternate measures of adiposity/obesity, such as waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio, that provide information regarding body fat distribution. Although BMI is the established clinical measurement to estimate CVD risk associated with excess bodyweight, there is evidence suggesting that abdominal obesity could represent a better marker of CVD risk than BMI. It is now recognized that abdominally obese individuals tend to have higher blood pressure. A major cardiovascular risk factor associated with stroke is systemic hypertension followed closely by obesity. Clinical adiposity indices used to describe obesity linked with systemic hypertension and stroke incidence are reviewed in this article. In summary, BMI, waist circumference, waist-to-hip ratio and waist-to-height ratio measurements are all useful tools for assessing adiposity/obesity in clinical practice, and should be evaluated with other cardiometabolic risk factors to refine cardiovascular risk stratification.     

Disability, physical activity, and muscle strength in older women: the Women's Health and Aging Study

OBJECTIVE: To study associations of motor disability, physical activity, and muscle strength in older women, in particular to investigate whether model of spiraling decrease is expressed in the data. DESIGN: Cross-sectional analysis using data from the baseline measurements of The Women's Health and Aging Study (WHAS). SETTING: Participants' homes. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1,002 disabled women aged 65 years and older living in the community. OUTCOME MEASURES: Motor disability was measured by the number of self-reported difficulties in grasping, lifting 101b, walking across a small room, walking 1/4 mile, climbing 10 steps, and doing heavy housework. Level of physical activity was determined from response to a series of questions on the frequency and amount of common activities and physical exercise. Hand grip and knee extension forces were measured using portable hand-held dynamometers. RESULTS: Disability and physical activity were inversely associated, with inactivity being most common among the most disabled women. Those with poorer strength reported more difficulties in motor activities. Greater strength was found among the physically more active. In stratified analyses, the positive association of physical activity on knee extension strength was consistent across disability levels. Multiple regression analysis showed that both physical activity and muscle strength were significant predictors for severity of disability. Structural equation model (LISREL) showed that muscle strength had a mediating role between physical activity and disability; disability was associated with physical inactivity, which correlated with lower muscle strength, which was associated with greater degree of disability. CONCLUSION: Even though causality cannot be confirmed in this cross-sectional analysis, our findings suggested a spiraling model of decline in which muscle strength has a significant role.     

A simulation of hand impairments: Effects on upper extremity function and implications toward medical impairment rating and disability determination

Objectives: To determine whether simulation of significant impairment of the hand will have a predictable impact on degree of functional loss at the wrist and hand.Design: Single subject repeat measures using before-after trial comparisons and healthy volunteer subjects.Setting: Occupational therapy section of a large academic medical center.Other Participants: Twenty adult volunteer student subjects from an occupational therapy education (OTE) department were included. All were between ages 18 and 43 years, right hand dominant, and in excellent general health. There were 19 women and 1 man, reflecting gender distribution of the OTE student body.Intervention: A simulated fusion of the carpometacarpal (CMC) joint of the thumb was achieved by immobilization in an individually fabricated splint designed to maximally restrict motion at the first CMC joint. Impairment ratings (baseline vs splinted) according to the AMA Guides were obtained by Greenleaf testing, and upper extremity function was quantitatively assessed before and after splinting.Main Outcome Measures: Measures of upper extremity function included grip and pinch strength, wrist torque, and speed of performance on the Valpar Small Tools test, Jebsen Hand Function test, and an exploratory measure, the Functional Life Activity Test (FLAT).Results: Significant impairments were achieved for all subjects after splinting and according to Greenleaf testing. Splinting resulted in significant reductions in grip and pinch strength, wrist torque, and significant slowing of performance on the Valpar, Jebsen, and FLAT tests. Regressions of degree of impairment on degree of functional loss after splinting, and according to each of the above measures, were not significant.Conclusions: Impairment of the hand was simulated to a mild-to-moderate degree as measured according to the AMA Guides. This imposed significant reductions in motion at key joints of the wrist and hand as well as significant reductions in grip and pinch strength and wrist torque. A corresponding and significant slowing of performance on a variety of measures of upper extremity function of an industrial and nonindustrial nature was also seen. However, and for the first time, correlation and regression reveals that it is not possible to predict degree of functional loss attributable to degree of impairment for the hand. It thus appears that, for mild-to-moderate clinical impairments, the associated impairment rating is a poor estimator of functional loss at the hand and should be used cautiously, if at all, as a criterion for disability determination.     

Independent effects of peripheral nerve dysfunction on lower-extremity physical function in old age: the Women's Health and Aging Study

OBJECTIVE: To determine the role of peripheral nerve dysfunction (PND) in the disablement pathway. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Vibration perception threshold (VPT) was measured in 894 women aged > or = 65 years, and those with normal peripheral nerve function and with mild, moderate, and severe PND were identified. Lower-extremity impairments included quadriceps strength (kilograms) and three progressively difficult balance tasks (able/unable). Functional limitations included rising from a chair (able/unable) and usual pace and fast-paced walking speeds (meters/second). Level of PND was related to impairments and functional limitations in linear and logistic regression models that controlled for potentially confounding factors, including reported diabetes. RESULTS: Level of PND was associated with impaired balance (adjusted odds ratios: 2.21, 1.95, and 3.02 for mild, moderate, and severe PND, respectively, relative to normal, P < 0.05). PND was also associated with decrements in both usual and fast-paced walking speeds (-0.08, -0.08, and -0.15 m/s for usual pace and -0.13, -0.12, and -0.24 m/s for fast-paced walking speed for women with mild, moderate, and severe PND, respectively; P < 0.01 for all). Reported diabetes was not associated with these outcomes in the presence of PND. Some, but not all, of the association between PND and functional limitations was explained by the relationship between PND and impairments. CONCLUSIONS: PND is significantly associated with both lower-extremity impairments and functional limitations in older women, and PND appears to have independent effects on functional limitations. The independent effect of diabetes on these outcomes may be limited when PND is considered. Further research is needed to determine if PND is causally related to disability in old age.     

同型半胱氨酸与老年下肢动脉粥样硬化性疾病的关系

目的探讨血浆同型半胱氨酸(Hcy)与老年下肢动脉粥样硬化性疾病(LEAD)的关系。方法顺序入选217例老年患者,根据踝臂指数(ABI)分为下肢动脉正常组和LEAD组,采集吸烟、高血压、糖尿病、高脂血症、冠心病、脑卒中史,分别检测Hcy、肌酐(Cr)、尿酸(UA)、胱抑素C(Cys-C)、总胆固醇(TC)、三酰甘油(TG)、高密度胆固醇(HDL-C)、低密度胆固醇(LDL-C)以及血压(BP)、体质量指数(BMI)、腹围,并对各组化验指标进行统计学分析及多元回归分析。结果两组间年龄、性别、腹围、BMI、舒张压(DBP)、Cr、Cys-C、FBG、TC、TG、LDL-C以及高血压、糖尿病、高脂血症病史差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);LEAD组Hcy、UA、收缩压、脉压以及吸烟、冠心病、脑卒中史明显高于正常组(P<0.05),ABI、HDL-C明显低于正常组(P<0.05);多元线性回归分析显示Hcy与LEAD正相关。结论高同型半胱氨酸血症是老年心血管疾病的重要危险因素,应积极干预。     

老年2型糖尿病合并非酒精性脂肪肝与下肢动脉疾病的关系

目的探讨老年2型糖尿病（T2DM）合并非酒精性脂肪肝的发生与下肢动脉疾病（LEAD）的关系。方法对89例老年2型糖尿病患者,根据有无合并非酒精性脂肪肝分为合并脂肪肝组和非脂肪肝组。对这些患者进行体格检查、生化检查及下肢动脉彩色多普勒超声检查。结果老年2型糖尿病合并脂肪肝组BMI、WHR、FINS、HOMA—IR、LDL—C、TG较非脂肪肝组升高（P〈0．05）。两组间LEAD发生率无显著性差异,但合并脂肪肝组重度及极重度LEAD发生率较高。结论老年2型糖尿病合并脂肪肝组更易出现血脂异常、胰岛素抵抗及较严重下肢动脉疾病。     

Prospective association between lung function and the incidence of diabetes: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-up Study

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether impaired pulmonary function is a significant predictor of the incidence of diabetes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-Up Study, a cohort study of a representative sample of U.S. adults, we examined the prospective associations between pulmonary function and incidence of diabetes. Our analyses included 4,830 U.S. men and women aged 25-74 years who had a baseline interview and examination (including spirometry) from 1971 through 1975 and were followed through 1992-1993. Incident diabetes (n=443) was based on self- or proxy reports, hospitalization, or death certificates. RESULTS: After multiple adjustment, forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV1), forced vital capacity (FVC), percentage of predicted FEV1, and percentage of predicted FVC were significantly and inversely associated with the incidence of diabetes, but the ratio of FEV1 to FVC was not. Obstructive lung disease (defined by the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease classification) was not significantly associated with the incidence of diabetes, but restrictive lung disease was (hazard ratio=1.45, 95% CI 1.04-2.03). The association did not differ significantly by smoking status. CONCLUSIONS: Although several prospective studies have found that impaired pulmonary function may increase the risk for developing diabetes, additional research is needed to better understand these relationships and their possible implications.     

The relationship between clinical measurements of lower extremity posture and tibial translation

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this investigation was to determine if postures of the lower extremity were related to the amount of anterior tibial translation. DESIGN: Regression model of lower extremity postural measures used to predict the amount of tibial translation for a sample of convenience. BACKGROUND: Retrospective studies have indicated a link between certain lower extremity postures and prediction of anterior cruciate ligament injury status. What is not clear is whether these lower extremity postures cause, or occur as a result of anterior cruciate ligament injury. METHODS: Genu recurvatum, the thigh-foot angle, and navicular drop measures were obtained from the right leg of 43 uninjured college-aged subjects. Tibial translation was determined using a KT-1000 arthrometer. Gender related differences were determined with independent t-tests. Step-wise regression was performed to assess the relationship between postural measures and subject gender, and tibial translation. RESULTS: Very good to excellent inter- and intra-rater reliability was found for the postural measures. There was greater tibial translation (P=0.01) in females. The final regression model indicated a moderate relationship between sex of the subject, navicular drop and tibial translation (r=0.551). Genu recurvatum and thigh-foot angle were not significant predictors of tibial translation. CONCLUSIONS; We concluded that foot pronation has a greater impact on the amount of tibial translation than genu recurvatum and torsion of the lower leg in anterior cruciate intact subjects. RELEVANCE: Static clinical measures of lower extremity posture are commonly taken as predictors of outcome (both performance and injury). There may be little association between these static measures and dynamic performance.     

2型糖尿病患者趾臂指数与颈动脉及下肢动脉内中膜厚度的相关性研究

目的分析2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者趾臂指数(TBI)与外周动脉内中膜厚度(IMT)的相关性及TBI降低的危险因素。方法选择该院内分泌科住院的T2DM患者292例作为研究对象,分析其TBI与颈、股、腘动脉IMT的相关性及TBI降低的危险因素。结果 TBI降低组(TBI<0.7)与TBI正常组(TBI≥0.7)比较,年龄,DM病程,收缩压(SBP),颈、股、腘动脉IMT,DN患病人数差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);TBI与颈、股、腘动脉IMT均呈负相关(r=-0.331、-0.288、-0.350,P<0.001);TBI降低的危险因素为年龄(OR=1.060、P<0.001、95%CI:1.027~1.095)、DM病程(OR=1.073、P=0.001、95%CI:1.027~1.121)、SBP(OR=1.021、P=0.018、95%CI:1.004~1.039)和吸烟史(OR=2.406、P=0.008、95%CI:1.251~4.626)。结论 T2DM患者TBI与颈、股、腘动脉IMT均呈负相关,年龄、糖尿病病程、SBP和吸烟史是TBI降低的危险因素。     

The association between diabetes and cognitive changes during aging

Abstract

Background

Worldwide, we are observing a rising prevalence of dementia and mild cognitive impairments that often co-occur with the heightened incidence of non-communicable diseases in the elderly. It is suggested that type 2 diabetes and defects in glucose metabolism might predispose to poorer cognitive performances and more rapid decline in old age.     

The Spanish lower extremity functional scale: A reliable,valid and responsive questionnaire to assess musculoskeletal disorders in the lower extremity

Abstract

Purpose: The Lower Extremity Functional Scale (LEFS) is a widely used questionnaire to evaluate the functional impairment of a patient with a disorder of one or both lower extremities. It also can be used to monitor the patient over time and to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention. Nevertheless there is no Spanish version of the LEFS, so the aim of this study was the translation and cross-cultural adaption of the Spanish version of the LEFS and to evaluate its psychometrics properties. Methods: The questionnaire was cross cultural adapted into Spanish. The psychometric properties tested in the Spanish version of the LEFS were: internal consistency, test–retest reliability, constructs validity, discriminative validity, responsiveness, concurrent validity and floor and ceiling effects in 132 participants seeking for treatment due to lower extremity dysfunction. Results: The Spanish version of the LEFS had high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α?=?0.989), test–retest reliability (ICC?=?0.998, 95% CI: 0.996–0.999) and presented a high correlation with the SF-36 (36-Item Short-Form Health Survey) especially with the physical function and pain subscales. The construct validity showed a single factor that account for 84.95% of the variance. The standard error of measurement of the Spanish version of the LEFS was 0.88 scale points (95% CI) and the minimal detectable change was 2.18 scale points (95% CI). The sample, collected from five Spanish physical therapy centers, was divided in groups (acute, sub-acute and chronic subjects). Within group changes showed a significant improvement on the LEFS score (p?<?0.001) and effect sizes were large in all conditions. The LEFS allowed to distingue between acute and not acute conditions; for this criterion ROC curve was performed at baseline (area under the curve [AUC]?=?0.95). There was no floor or ceiling effects. Conclusions: The Spanish version of the LEFS has been shown to be a valid and reliable tool to assess musculoskeletal dysfunction in the lower extremity that could be used with Spanish speaker population.

• Implications for Rehabilitation

• Cross-cultural adaptation of a self-reported questionnaire to evaluate musculoskeletal lower extremity disorders in the Spanish population.

• To provide Spanish clinicians and physiotherapists a useful tool to assess the lower extremity function.

• To provide Spanish researchers a valid tool for research on lower extremity function: patient’s improvement due to treatment, compare results obtained between populations, treatment.

     

2型糖尿病患者绝经后血清性激素结合球蛋白与下肢血管病变的相关性

目的探讨血清性激素结合球蛋白水平(SHBG)与绝经后2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者下肢血管病变的相关性。方法选取150例绝经后T2DM患者,根据双下肢高分辨彩色多普勒检查分为单纯T2DM(A组)50例,合并轻度下肢动脉粥样硬化(B组)45例,合并重度下肢动脉粥样硬化(C组)55例;并选取同期来本院体检的45例绝经后健康者为对照(NC)组,对各组患者进行临床资料收集及常规生化指标检测,采用电化学发光法检测各组空腹血清SHBG及睾酮(T)、雌二醇(E2),促卵泡刺激素(FSH),黄体生成素(LH)水平,并分析SHBG与其他指标的关系。结果4组血清SHBG水平依次为:NC组[(60.4±8.8)μg/L]A组[(44.1±6.1)μg/L]B组[(33.6±4.9)μg/L]C组[(25.83±3.4)μg/L];T2DM组中,血清SHBG水平与HbA1c、TG、T、LDL-C、HOMA-IR负相关(r值分别为-0.605、-0.164、-0.351、-0.247、-0.649,P0.05);回归分析结果显示,校正混杂因素后,血清SHBG水平仍与糖尿病下肢血管病变相关(OR=1.674,P=0.001,95%CI:1.124~2.146)。结论低水平的SHBG是绝经后2型糖尿病患者下肢血管病变的危险因素之一。