原发性胆囊癌77例诊治分析

目的探讨原发性胆囊癌(PCG)的诊断与治疗方法。方法回顾性分析我院普外科2000年1月至2006年12月经手术治疗的77例PCG的临床资料,并随访其生存情况。结果本组Ⅰa期3例,Ⅰb期7例,Ⅱ期2例,Ⅲ期19例,Ⅳa期7例,Ⅳb期39例;根治性切除38例(49.4%),其中扩大根治手术14例(18.2%),各种姑息手术39例(50.6%);术后并发症发生率为7.8%(6/77),围手术期死亡率为1.3%(1/77);随访,Ⅰ期均长期存活,对中晚期患者,根治性手术生存时间明显长于姑息手术。结论PCG早期诊断是提高生存率的关键,标准的根治性手术是PCG最有效的治疗方法。     

不同手术方式对Ⅳ期胆囊癌患者预后的影响

目的:探讨不同手术方式对于IV期胆囊癌患者远期预后的影响作用。方法:回顾性分析手术治疗的134例IV期胆囊癌患者的临床与随访资料,其中采用姑息切除术44例(姑息手术组)、采用胆囊癌根治术或扩大根治术治疗56例(根治性手术组)、胆道内外引流术治疗34例(引流组),比较3组患者的远期预后情况。结果:对于IVa期胆囊癌患者,3组的术后1年生存率差异无统计学意义(P0.05),但根治性手术组的术后3年生存率明显高于姑息手术组和引流组(17.2%vs.0.0%vs.0.0%,均P0.05);根治性手术组术后的中位生存时间18个月,明显长于姑息手术组(14个月)和引流组(12个月)(χ~2=12.094;14.876,均P0.05)。对于IVb期胆囊癌患者,3组术后1、3年生存率差异均无统计学意义(均P0.05);根治性手术组术后的中位生存时间14个月,明显长于姑息手术组(9个月)和引流组(9个月)(χ~2=8.741,χ~2=8.839,均P0.05)。结论:IV期胆囊癌患者早期采用根治性切除术有利于改善患者的远期预后。     

不同手术方式对IV期胆囊癌患者预后的影响

目的：探讨不同手术方式对于IV期胆囊癌患者远期预后的影响作用。 方法：回顾性分析手术治疗的134例IV期胆囊癌患者的临床与随访资料,其中采用姑息切除术44例（姑息手术组）、采用胆囊癌根治术或扩大根治术治疗56例（根治性手术组）、胆道内外引流术治疗34例（引流组）,比较3组患者的远期预后情况。 结果：对于IVa期胆囊癌患者,3组的术后1年生存率差异无统计学意义（P>0.05）,但根治性手术组的术后3年生存率明显高于姑息手术组和引流组（17.2% vs. 0.0% vs. 0.0%,均P<0.05）;根治性手术组术后的中位生存时间18个月,明显长于姑息手术组（14个月）和引流组（12个月）（χ2=12.094;14.876,均P<0.05）。对于IVb期胆囊癌患者,3组术后1、3年生存率差异均无统计学意义（均P>0.05）;根治性手术组术后的中位生存时间14个月,明显长于姑息手术组（9个月）和引流组（9个月）（χ2=8.741,χ2=8.839,均P<0.05）。 结论：IV期胆囊癌患者早期采用根治性切除术有利于改善患者的远期预后。     

胆囊癌临床分期及手术方式与预后的关系

目的 评价胆囊癌Nevin分期、手术方式与预后的关系.方法 1992年10月至2002年12月间,新华医院手术治疗的82例胆囊癌患者,记录Nevin分期、手术方式及术后生存情况.结果 在行根治术或扩大根治术的47例中淋巴结阳性者38例(80.85%).其中包括3例Ⅱ期、30例Ⅳ期、5例Ⅴ期.侵犯胆囊壁全层的胆囊癌(Ⅲ期+Ⅳ期)中淋巴结转移率为83.3%(30/36).4例行单纯胆囊切除的Ⅰ期患者长期生存.而行单纯胆囊切除的4例Ⅱ期患者及1例Ⅲ期患者存活均未超过3年.行胆囊癌根治术的4例Ⅱ期、1例Ⅲ期及行胆囊癌扩大根治术3例Ⅳ期患者生存5年以上.行扩大根治术的Ⅴ期及剖腹探查病例3年、5年生存率为0.结论 胆囊癌的分期、手术方式与术后生存率有显著关系,Ⅰ期可行单纯胆囊切除,Ⅱ、Ⅲ期胆囊癌应行根治切除手术,Ⅳ期胆囊癌应行扩大根治手术,Ⅴ期患者行扩大根治手术无效.     

Nevin Ⅳ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌62例的外科治疗

目的　总结NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌的外科治疗经验 ,探讨提高晚期胆囊癌生存率的方法。方法　回顾性分析 1993年 1月至 2 0 0 2年 12月间经手术治疗并有病理诊断的 6 2例NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌的临床资料 ,分析不同手术方式与预后之间的关系。结果　 6 2例中NevinⅣ期 17例 ,Ⅴ期4 5例。 30例行剖腹探查术 ,32例切除胆囊 ,切除率 5 2 % (32 /6 2 ) ,其中行根治性切除术 7例 ,扩大根治术 10例 ,姑息性切除术 15例 ,根治率 2 7% (17/6 2 )。根治性切除并发症发生率为 35 % (6 /17)。 1、3、5年生存率根治性切除分别为 6 1%、31%和 11% ,姑息性切除分别为 2 7%、13%、0 (P <0 0 1) ;剖腹探查术后 1年生存率仅为 3% ,3年以上生存率为 0。结论　对NevinⅣ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌应进行积极的手术治疗 ,根治术或扩大根治术是提高患者长期生存率的有效手段 ,姑息性切除术也能改善患者生活质量 ,延长生存期。     

射频消融处理胆囊床在T1b期胆囊癌根治性手术中的应用

目的探讨射频消融处理胆囊床在T1b期胆囊癌根治性手术中的应用及在不同期手术中的疗效。方法回顾性分析首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院西院肝胆胰脾外科2011年4月1日至2019年3月31日收治的21例T1b期胆囊癌手术患者的临床资料,将术中冰冻病理确诊的患者纳入同期手术组,术后确诊补做手术及外院切除胆囊后在首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院西院补充手术患者纳入二期手术组。观察两组患者手术时间、出血量、生存率及生存时间等差异并统计两组患者5年累积生存率及总体生存时间。结果所有患者均完成胆囊癌根治术,其中男性14例,女性7例,年龄26-70(49.0±13.5)岁,无围手术期死亡病例。同期手术组纳入15例,二期手术组纳入6例。同期手术组出血量少于二期手术[(101.3±35.5)ml比(177.0±44.6)ml],差异具有统计学意义(P<0.05)。两组患者手术时间、生存率、生存时间差异均无统计学意义(均P>0.05)。两组患者5年累计生存率56.5%,总体生存时间(79.0±9.3)个月。结论射频消融处理胆囊床在T1b期胆囊癌根治性手术中安全和有效。对于术中难以明确诊断的T1b期胆囊癌,二期手术可获得与同期手术相同的疗效。     

96例胆囊癌的外科治疗与预后因素分析

目的 研究影响胆囊癌预后的因素.方法 回顾性分析中国医科大学附属第一医院1993-2003年收治的96例胆囊癌临床资料并进行预后多因素Cox回归模型分析.结果 胆囊癌的总体5年生存率为6.32%,胆囊癌根治切除组的1、3、5年生存率分别为78.36%、48.54%和23.87%,与姑息手术组、剖腹探查组、非手术组间之间的差异有统计学意义;Cox模型多因素分析表明手术方式和肿瘤的浸润深度与胆囊癌的预后显著相关,其中手术方式为保护性因素.结论 早期诊断并予根治是胆囊癌病人长期生存的保证,适宜的围手术期处理有助于改善生存率.     

T3期胆囊癌行扩大淋巴结清扫的临床效果

目的:探讨扩大淋巴结清扫对T_3期胆囊癌患者预后的影响。方法:回顾性分析2009年1月—2014年12月江苏省泰州市人民医院45例行胆囊癌根治术的T3期胆囊癌患者的临床资料。根据术中淋巴结清扫范围分为标准清扫组(20例,行标准区域淋巴结清扫,即清扫胆囊管、胆总管周围及肝十二指肠韧带等部位的淋巴结)和扩大清扫组(25例,行扩大区域淋巴结清扫,即标准淋巴结清扫基础上,行胰头后上淋巴结清扫,并送快速病理检查,如为阳性则加做腹主动脉旁淋巴结清扫)。比较两组患者术后并发症情况及预后。结果:两组患者均无围手术期死亡。标准清扫组患者并发症发生率为15.0%(3/20),扩大清扫组患者并发症发生率为20.0%(5/25),差异无统计学意义(P0.05)。标准清扫组1、3年累积生存率为8%、0,中位生存时间为9个月;扩大清扫组1、3年累积生存率为100%、44%,中位生存时间为28个月,扩大清扫组生存率明显高于标准清扫组(χ~2=45.921,P0.05)。结论:T_3期胆囊癌患者在原发病灶能够根治性切除的基础上,加行以清扫胰头后上方淋巴结及腹主动脉旁淋巴结为重点的扩大淋巴结清扫可明显提高患者术后生存率,且不增加手术并发症。     

腹腔镜手术中意外胆囊癌的临床处理分析

目的:探讨在腹腔镜胆囊切除术(LC)中意外发现胆囊癌的治疗方法。方法:对14例LC时意外发现的胆囊癌患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果:4例NevinⅠ、Ⅱ期患者行单纯LC,2例Ⅲ期和3例Ⅳ期患者行LC中转开腹+局部淋巴结清扫术+肝脏楔形切除术,5例Ⅴ期患者行胆囊姑息性切除术。全组意外胆囊癌的发生率为0.06%。结论:Ⅰ期的意外胆囊癌行LC可达到根治目的,Ⅱ期行胆囊切除+肝脏部分切除+术后化疗,Ⅲ、Ⅳ期需行胆囊癌根治术,Ⅴ期根据情况行胆囊切除或姑息手术。     

122例原发性胆囊癌外科治疗体会

目的 探讨原发性胆囊癌治疗的措施。方法 对我院1998年4月至2003年2月外科治疗的122例原发性胆囊癌患者的临床资料，结合部分患者随访结果进行分析总结。结果 19例Ⅰ、Ⅱ及Ⅲ期胆囊癌患者手术治疗效果满意；103例Ⅳ、V期胆囊癌患者中34例行根治或扩大根治术，根治切除率为33．O％，余69例行姑息性手术治疗，行胆囊癌根治术后患者的平均生存时间明显长于姑息性手术者(17．6个月vs7．3个月)。结论 对胆囊癌应采取积极的、个体化的治疗措施。扩大根治术可使部分Ⅳ、Ⅴ期胆囊癌患者受益。应注意淋巴结清扫的范围和做到无残留癌的根治性切除。对综合治疗的研究还需进一步深入。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.