The effects of fatness and fat distribution on respiratory functions

BACKGROUND: Inverse relationships between respiratory function and indices of obesity and fat distribution have been reported, but it remains unclear which measure of obesity shows the strongest relationship with lung function. AIM: The study assessed the effect of fatness and fat distribution on respiratory function. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A sample of 423 males and 509 females aged 40-50 years were examined in the Silesian Centre for Preventive Medicine, DOLMED, in Wroc?aw in 1995. The strength of influence of height, body mass index (BMI), wait-to-hip ratio (WHR) and abdominal and subscapular skinfolds upon forced vital capacity (FVC) and forced expiratory volume in a 1-s expiration (FEV1) was assessed by multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: In males, FVC was strongly positively associated with height and BMI, but negatively associated with subscapular and abdominal skinfolds, WHR, and smoking. FEV1 showed a positive relationship with height, BMI and WHR. In females, both FVC and FEV1 showed significant positive associations with height, negative ones with subscapular skinfold, and no association with either WHR or abdominal skinfold. In males, respiratory function is affected to a similar extent by fat in the abdominal region and by fatness of the chest. In females, fatness of the thorax has the strongest relationship with respiratory function. CONCLUSION: Fatness tends to impair respiratory function in both sexes but these effects show a different pattern in males and females. In males, respiratory functions are significantly, and to a similar extant, affected by fatness in the abdominal region, both subcutaneous and visceral, and by fatness on the chest. In females, it is primarily subcutaneous fat on the upper thorax that affects respiratory functions, while visceral and subcutaneous abdominal fatness play little or no role.     

Nutritional status,especially body mass index,from birth to adulthood and lung function in young adulthood

Objective: The study assessed the impact of body mass index (BMI) at birth, infancy, and adulthood, and waist circumference on lung function.

Methods: Using a longitudinal design 1221 Chilean young adults were studied. A standardized respiratory questionnaire was used. Forced expiratory volume in 1 s (FEV₁), forced vital capacity (FVC), height, weight and waist circumference were measured. Data at birth and at 1 year were obtained from clinical notes.

Results: Males with a BMI?≥?30 and women with a BMI?<?20 had a lower FEV₁ (?230 mL, 95% CI ?363 to ?98; ?106 mL, 95% CI ?211 to ?0.18, respectively). In both sexes those with a BMI 20–25 had the highest FEV₁ and FVC. In males there was a negative association between waist circumference and FEV₁ and FVC while in women the middle tertile had the highest FEV₁ and FVC. There was an association between birthweight and BMI at birth, and FEV₁ in men, when unadjusted for other measurements.

Conclusions: BMI and waist circumference in adulthood make a greater impact on lung function in adulthood than anthropometric measurements at birth and infancy. Proxy measures of fatness in adulthood reduce lung function, but the pattern between fatness and lung function by sex may be different.     

Ontogenesis changes and sex dimorphism of subcutaneous fat distribution: 12‐Year longitudinal study of children and adolescents from Cracow,Poland

The aim of the work was to analyze the direction and tempo of subcutaneous fat redistribution during ontogenesis, appearing sex differences and relations to puberty on the basis of 12‐year longitudinal data of 270 boys and 154 girls from Cracow, Poland. They all had complete data (from 7 to 18‐years old) of three trunk (subscapular, abdominal, suprailiac) and three extremity (triceps, knee, medial calf) skinfold thicknesses. The type of subcutaneous adipose tissue distribution was determined based on trunk to extremity ratio to analyze the process of fat redistribution. The analysis included medians of extremity and trunk skinfolds and medians of their sums and age altered frequency of central and peripheral type of fat distribution. To present empirical values, the median variability of the sums of three trunk and extremity skinfolds was calculated using a third degree polynomial as an age function. Polynomial regression of extremity skinfolds median explained 88% of its variability (F = 71.2, P < 0.001) and for trunk skinfolds as far as 96% (F = 111.65, P < 0.001). The median variability curves of both types of distribution crossed at the age of 11.88 in girls and 13.45 in boys directly preceding puberty stage, which indicated clear dependencies between fat redistribution and puberty. The results showed a tight connection between the process of subcutaneous fat redistribution and puberty, and also sex dimorphism of the process. More dynamic fat redistribution in boys contrasted trunk and extremity fatness, while in girls less dynamic changes resulted in more even fatness. Am. J. Hum. Biol., 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Sex differences in skinfold variability across human populations and during the life cycle

Background: Subcutaneous fat measurements have been recently found to show sex differences in variability (dispersion dimorphism) in young adult samples from two extant unrelated European populations, with males more variable than females.

Aim: This paper aims to investigate potential sex-by-age interaction and to verify its presence and possible different expression in various populations.

Subjects and methods: Biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, midthigh and calf skinfolds were analysed in two European samples from the Basque Country (4176 subjects, 8–50 years) and from Sardinia (2491 subjects, 14–100 years). Data on triceps and subscapular skinfolds in Non-Hispanic Whites (1799 subjects, 8–75 years), Mexican Americans (3133 subjects, 8–85 years), Other samples (1733 subjects, 8–70 years) from NHANES (2001–2002) were also included in the analysis. The significance of the difference between male and female coefficients of variation was performed by means of a suitable non-parametric bootstrap test.

Results: Skinfold coefficients of variation were greater in males than in females in 79.8% of comparisons with 27.2% significant differences. Dispersion dimorphism was particularly evident in peripheral subcutaneous fat depots. The results do not show appreciable variations across population samples and age classes.

Conclusion: Skinfold dispersion dimorphism seems to exist throughout most of the life cycle, and be widespread in European and non-European human populations. It involves especially accumulation sites of the gynoid pattern known to be relevant in female reproduction. More ‘standardized’ fatty reserves in women might represent a selective advantage. On the other hand, skinfold dispersion dimorphism might also be related to cultural factors affecting the extent of female variability by means of enhanced environmental homogeneity.     

The prediction of body fatness by BMI and skinfold thicknesses among children and adolescents

Background: Although the body mass index (BMI, kg?m^?2) is widely used as a measure of adiposity, it is a measure of excess weight, rather than excess body fat. It has been suggested that skinfold thicknesses be measured among overweight children to confirm the presence of excess adiposity.

Objective: The present study examined the additional information provided by skinfold thicknesses on body fatness, beyond that conveyed by BMI-for-age, among healthy 5- to 18-years old (n?=?1196).

Methods and procedures: Total body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) provided estimates of % body fat, and the sum of two skinfolds (triceps and subscapular) was used as an indicator of the overall skinfold thickness.

Results: As assessed by the multiple R²s and the residuals of various regression models, information on the skinfold sum significantly (?p?<?0.001) improved the prediction of body fatness beyond that obtained with BMI-for-age. For example, the use of the skinfold sum, in addition to BMI-for-age, increased the multiple R²s for predicting % body fat from 0.81 to 0.90 (boys), and from 0.82 to 0.89 (girls). The use of the skinfold sum also reduced the overall prediction errors (absolute value of the residuals) for % body fat by 20–30%, but these reductions varied substantially by BMI-for-age. Among overweight children, defined by a BMI-for-age ≥95th percentile, the skinfold sum reduced the predication errors for % body fat by only 7–9%.

Conclusions: Although skinfold thicknesses, when used in addition to BMI-for-age, can substantially improve the estimation of body fatness, the improvement among overweight children is small.     

Obesity and regional fat distribution in Kenyan populations: Impact of ethnicity and urbanization

Background: Obesity is increasing rapidly in Africa, and may not be associated with the same changes in body composition among different ethnic groups in Africa.

Objective: To assess abdominal visceral and subcutaneous fat thickness, prevalence of obesity, and differences in body composition in rural and urban Kenya.

Subjects and methods: In a cross-sectional study carried out among Luo, Kamba and Maasai in rural and urban Kenya, abdominal visceral and subcutaneous fat thicknesses were measured by ultrasonography. Height and weight, waist, mid-upper arm circumferences, and triceps skinfold thickness were measured. Body mass index (BMI), arm fat area (AFA) and arm muscle area (AMA) were calculated.

Results: Among 1430 individuals (58.3% females) aged 17–68 years, abdominal visceral and subcutaneous fat, BMI, AFA and waist circumference (WC) increased with age, and were highest in the Maasai and in the urban population. AMA was only higher with increasing age among males. The prevalence of overweight (BMI ≥ 25) (39.8% vs. 15.8%) and obesity (BMI ≥ 30) (15.5% vs. 5.1%) was highest in the urban vs. rural population.

Conclusion: Abdominal visceral and subcutaneous fat thickness was higher with urban residency. A high prevalence of overweight and obesity was found. The Maasai had the highest overall fat accumulation.     

Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis in 5–10-year-old Bengalee girls from Calcutta,India

Summary.?Objective: The purpose of the present cross-sectional study was to evaluate the sensitivity (SN) and specificity (SP) of body mass index (BMI) and skinfolds thickness: BMI (subcutaneous to overall fat) in detecting excess adiposity in pre-menarcheal Bengalee girls.

Methods: Four hundred and fifty Bengalee girls aged 7.4 ± 1.16 years (mean ± SD; range: 5–10 years) from Calcutta were studied. Anthropometric measures – namely height, weight, circumference of mid upper arm, waist and hip, and skinfold thickness at biceps, triceps, subscapular and suprailiac – were taken from all participants using standard protocols. BMI and the log-transformed sum of four (biceps, triceps, subscapular, suprailiac) skinfolds (log₁₀ SF4) were computed subsequently. Values of log₁₀ SF4 were then converted into seven percentiles category (5th, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 85th and 95th). Excess adiposity was defined as a level of log₁₀ SF4 greater than the internally derived 85th percentile (log₁₀ SF4>85th percentile). SN and SP of each internally derived percentile of BMI and log₁₀ SF4:BMI in detecting excess adiposity were then computed.

Results: SN and SP were 0.49 and 0.94 for the 95th percentile of BMI, and 0.76 and 0.82 for the 95th percentile of log₁₀ SF4:BMI. Moreover, there was a considerable decrease in overall misclassification with the use of log₁₀ SF4:BMI instead of BMI at the 95th percentile (11.2% vs 32%).

Conclusion: Percentiles of BMI in the study had higher SP but low SN in detecting excess adiposity. The use of log₁₀ SF4:BMI, on the other hand, had the merit of increasing SN in a screening programme to evaluate excess adiposity in Bengalee children aged 5–10 years.     

Familial resemblance in fatness and fat distribution

The purpose of the study was to estimate the degree of familial resemblance in anthropometric indicators of fatness and fat distribution. The sample consisted of 327 Caucasian participants from 102 nuclear families. Indicators of fatness included the body mass index (BMI), the sum of six skinfolds (SF6: triceps + biceps + medial calf + subscapular + suprailiac + abdominal), and waist circumference (WAIST), while indicators of fat distribution included WAIST adjusted for BMI (WAIST_ADJ), the trunk-to-extremity skinfold ratio, adjusted for SF6 (TER_ADJ), and the first principal component of skinfolds, adjusted for the mean skinfold of the individual (PC1). A general familial correlation model was fit to the data, and a series of nested reduced models were also fit so as to test hypotheses about familial resemblance. The hypothesis of no familial resemblance (all familial correlations are zero) was rejected for all phenotypes, indicating that fatness and fat distribution aggregate within families. For the three indicators of fatness (BMI, SF6, and WAIST), the sibling and parent–offspring correlations were significant. Further, there were no sex or generation differences in the familial correlations. For the three indicators of fat distribution (TER_ADJ, WAIST_ADJ, and PC1), there was no parent–offspring resemblance; sibling resemblance was significant for TER_ADJ and PC1. Further, spouse resemblance was not significant for WAIST_ADJ, but was for TER_ADJ and PC1. For both WAIST_ADJ and PC1 there were significant sex differences in the familial correlations. A combination of models including no sex or generation differences and no spouse resemblance was the most parsimonious model for BMI, SF6, and TER_ADJ. The environmental model (all correlations equal) was the most parsimonious for WAIST, the model of no sibling resemblance was the most parsimonious for WAIST_ADJ, and the model of no spousal resemblance was the most parsimonious for PC1. Estimates of maximal heritability range from 46–60% for fatness and from 29–48% for fat distribution, independent of overall fatness, suggesting that in this sample the heritability of fatness is greater than that for fat distribution. Further, the pattern of correlations, which generally includes no spousal resemblance but significant parent–offspring and sibling correlations, suggests the role of genes in explaining at least part of the heritability. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12:395–404, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Secular trend in the development of fatness during childhood and adolescence

This study examined the development of fatness, as indexed by skinfold thickness, in healthy Caucasian children and adolescents residing in the same location in Canada in the 1960s and the 1990s. The data comes from two longitudinal studies, conducted approximately 30 years apart, of children aged 8–16 years. The first study (1964–1973) annually measured 207 males and 140 females. The second investigation (1991–1997) repeatedly measured 113 males and 115 females. Identical measurement tools and protocols were used for height, body mass, and skinfolds. Maturational age was estimated as a measure in years from age of peak height velocity. Males from the second investigation matured significantly (P < 0.05) earlier. Multilevel regression modeling was utilized to determine developmental curves for the individuals within the two populations. When differences in height, body mass, and maturity were controlled, skinfold thicknesses of the males and females in the second study were significantly greater (P < 0.05) than age‐ and sex‐matched peers in the first study. This was not seen in models of the BMI. The results suggest that when maturity and size were controlled, the fatness of children and adolescents increased over 30 years. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 14:669–679, 2002. © 2002 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Body frame dimensions are related to obesity and fatness: Lean trunk size,skinfolds, and body mass index

We explore relationships between BMI and skinfolds and anthropometric variables reflecting variation in lean body frame. Data on the middle class adult Australian women (n = 1260) collected in 2002 during a National Body Size and Shape Survey were used. Standard measurements of stature, weight, skeletal dimensions (shoulder width, hip width, chest width, and depth, limb lengths), circumferences of head, trunk, limbs and triceps, subscapular and abdominal skinfolds were taken. Techniques for measurements of skeletal frame minimized the inclusion of adipose tissue thickness. Analysis of variance and parametric and nonparametric correlations were used. Vertical dimensions show weak correlations with fatness, while body frame circumferences and transverse dimensions are consistently, significantly, and substantially correlated with fatness, each explaining from 3 to 44% of variation in skinfold thickness. Skeletal dimensions explain up to 50% of variation in skinfold thickness (multiple regression). Especially high correlations with skinfold thickness occur for chest width, depth, and hip width (r range from 0.42 to 0.66). Body frame dimensions reflect largely trunk volume and the trunk/limb proportions. Larger lean trunk size is associated with greater fatness. Since the size of the abdominal cavity, and thus the gastrointestinal system (GI), is reflected in the trunk size, we speculate that larger frame may predispose to obesity in two ways: (1) larger stomachs require greater bulk of food to produce feeling of satiety as mediated through antral distension, (2) larger GIs may absorb more nutrients. Frame size may help to detect the risk of obesity among young adults. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Gender differences in neonatal subcutaneous fat store in late gestation in relation to maternal weight gain

Objective : To study gender differences in fat store in human newborns and their relation to duration of gestation and maternal weight gain. Methods : The ratios subscapular skinfold thickness/body weight (SST/BW) and tricipital skinfold thickness/body weight (TST/BW) were calculated in a sample of 13 609 premature and term neonates from the maternity hospital of Clamart, Hauts-de-Seine, France. Results : Whereas BW, SST and TST increased with gestational age, SST/BW and TST/BW ratios decreased regularly, in males as in females. This result reflects a progressive reduction of subcutaneous fat store per body weight unit as the duration of gestation increases. Males had smaller values of SST/BW and TST/BW ratios than females whatever the gestational age. Increasing maternal weight gain during the third gestational trimester did not improve the subcutaneous fatness per body weight unit of the newborn. Earlier amount of maternal weight gain had an effect on the TST/BW index exclusively in females. Conclusions : In newborns, a gender difference was observed in the ratio of subcutaneous fat per unit of body weight; this ratio is lower in males than in females. This result argues for a gender difference in mobilization of fat store to ensure normal growth in the last weeks of pregnancy: males lose more fat but gain more weight than females in this period. Late maternal weight gain does not affect the proportion of subcutaneous fatness by body weight unit in both genders.     

Assessment of the growth of children and physical status of adults in two Aboriginal communities in South Australia

Growth of children and physical status of adults in two Aboriginal communities, Gerard and Raukkan, South Australia, were assessed. Height, weight, biepicondylar breadth of humerus, the triceps and subscapular skinfolds, and arm circumferences were measured on 110 children and 77 adults annually between 1996 and 2000. Data were transformed to z scores, using American reference data. In all groups height z scores are negative. In all but Raukkan boys, the z scores are significantly smaller than the reference. Body weight z scores lie above the reference, with the only exceptions being Gerard children. Still, in all cases BMI lies above the reference, being significantly greater than the reference, except in Gerard girls. z scores for the triceps skinfold are not consistently positive, but those for the subscapular skinfold are positive in all groups, indicating centralized fat accumulation. In both boys and girls, Raukkan men and Gerard women, biepicondylar breadth of the humerus is below the reference. Increased BMI and trunk fatness suggest that members of these communities are not only receiving adequate nutrition, but that in many cases there is also a caloric surplus, sometimes leading to obesity. Inadequate skeletal growth indicated by short stature and small biepicondylar breadths, on the other hand, suggests that the environment is less than optimal for growth. Factors such as disease load, psychosocial pressures, or specific nutrient shortages may be involved. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 13:603–611, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Gender differences in neonatal subcutaneous fat store in late gestation in relation to maternal weight gain

OBJECTIVE: To study gender differences in fat store in human newborns and their relation to duration of gestation and maternal weight gain. METHODS: The ratios subscapular skinfold thickness/body weight (SST/BW) and tricipital skinfold thickness/body weight (TST/BW) were calculated in a sample of 13609 premature and term neonates from the maternity hospital of Clamart, Hauts-de-Seine, France. RESULTS: Whereas BW, SST and TST increased with gestational age, SST/BW and TST/BW ratios decreased regularly, in males as in females. This result reflects a progressive reduction of subcutaneous fat store per body weight unit as the duration of gestation increases. Males had smaller values of SST/BW and TST/BW ratios than females whatever the gestational age. Increasing maternal weight gain during the third gestational trimester did not improve the subcutaneous fatness per body weight unit of the newborn. Earlier amount of maternal weight gain had an effect on the TST/BW index exclusively in females. CONCLUSIONS: In newborns, a gender difference was observed in the ratio of subcutaneous fat per unit of body weight; this ratio is lower in males than in females. This result argues for a gender difference in mobilization of fat store to ensure normal growth in the last weeks of pregnancy: males lose more fat but gain more weight than females in this period. Late maternal weight gain does not affect the proportion of subcutaneous fatness by body weight unit in both genders.     

Estimation of body fat and body fat distribution in 11-year-old children using magnetic resonance imaging and hydrostatic weighing,skinfolds, and anthropometry

From early pubescence, both degree and distribution of fatness have been related to health risk factors. Measures that are capable of providing estimates of overall fatness and the extent of high risk fat patterning are, therefore, advantageous. The objective of this study was to compare estimates of body fatness and fat distribution using magnetic resonance imaging with the traditional methods of hydrostatic weighing, skinfolds, and anthropometry in 11-year-old boys and girls. Subjects were 25 boys and 25 girls, representative of their age cohort's body mass index (BMI) range. Total fat using MRI was obtained by summing subcutaneous and internal fat areas from four transaxial scans at the chest, waist, hips, and thigh. Mean MRI total fat (MRI FAT) was 357 (±152) cm² with a range of 172–739 cm² for boys and 427 (±174) cm² with a range of 209–995 for girls. Correlation analyses revealed strong relationships between MRI FAT and UWW FAT (r = 0.73 boys, r = 0.77 girls), and the sum of four skinfolds (r = 0.94 boys, r = 0.88 girls). Analysis of the MRI data alone revealed that MRI FAT variation is largely explained by subcutaneous fat deposition at the waist in boys and at the level of the buttocks in girls, with most skinfolds correlating highly with MRI FAT in both sexes. Results of stepwise multiple regression showed that an abdominal skinfold and thigh circumference explained 95% of MRI FAT in boys, and 86% of the variance in girls. These data show that magnetic resonance images can provide useful information for the identification of discriminating field measures of fatness and its distribution in 11-year-old children. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Major gene effect on subcutaneous fat distribution in a sedentary population and its response to exercise training: The HERITAGE Family Study

Complex segregation analysis of baseline subcutaneous fat distribution and the change in response to exercise training (post-training minus baseline indices) was performed in a sample of 482 individuals from 99 Caucasian families who participated in the HERITAGE Family Study. The sum of skinfold (SF) thicknesses at eight sites, and the waist and hip circumferences were measured at baseline and after completing a 20-week exercise training program. The trunk-to-extremity ratio (TER) was calculated by dividing the sum of skinfold thicknesses at four trunk sites (subscapular + suprailiac + abdominal + midaxillary) by the sum of skinfold thicknesses at four extremity sites (triceps + biceps + medial calf + thigh). While SF was used to assess total subcutaneous adiposity, TER and the ratio of the waist-to-hip circumferences (WHR) were used to characterize subcutaneous fat distribution. Baseline TER and WHR were age-adjusted and age-SF-adjusted within four sex-by-generation groups. The changes of SF, TER, and WHR in response to training were adjusted for age effects alone and for the effects of age and baseline values. Baseline SF was influenced by a multifactorial component (30%) plus a major effect that may be environmental in origin accounting for 47% of the variance. Baseline TER was influenced by a multifactorial component (18%) and a major codominant gene (q² = 0.10), which accounted for 56% of the variance. The major gene effect was independent of total subcutaneous adiposity. Baseline WHR was regulated by a major codominant gene (q² = 0.15), which accounted for 48% of the variance. However, this major gene effect for baseline WHR should be interpreted with caution, given the estimates of the τ's under the general model. No familial effect was found for the changes in response to training for these subcutaneous adiposity and fat distribution phenotypes. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 12:600–609, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

广西仫佬族成人皮下脂肪发育趋势的研究

目的研究广西罗城仫佬族成人皮下脂肪的发育现状及年龄变化趋势。方法采用人体测量法调查了410例(男167,女243)仫佬族成人的肱三头肌位、肩胛下位、髂前上棘位和腓肠肌位共4项皮褶厚度状况,分析了仫佬族男女皮褶厚度随年龄变化的特点。结果①仫佬族成人躯干部的皮下脂肪厚于四肢部,其中背部脂肪最厚;②4项皮褶厚度值女性均高于男性,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);③男女性皮下脂肪的发育随第二性征的发育成熟而达到高峰,女性优先于男性;④四肢的脂肪含量男女均以青年期最高,而躯干的脂肪发育略有不同,男性以中年早期含量最高,女性在青年期达到高峰后稍下降再上升并维持在较高水平;⑤仫佬族男女皮下脂肪的发育总体劣于我国的北方民族,优于侗族、壮族等南方民族。结论广西仫佬族成人皮下脂肪的发育在我国各民族中属中等水平,结果可为仫佬族的体成分研究及疾病预防提供基础数据。     

Age-related changes in subcutaneous adipose tissue of adolescent distance runners and association with blood lipoproteins

Primary objective : The purpose of this study was to examine age- and sex-associated variation in subcutaneous adipose tissue (SAT) and its association with blood lipoproteins among adolescent distance runners. Methods : Serial data included 99 annual measurements for 27 males and 84 annual measurements for 27 females, aged 9-18 years. SAT was expressed as the sum of six skinfolds (SUM6; subscapular, supra-iliac, abdominal, triceps, biceps and medial calf). The ratio of the sum of three trunk skinfolds to the sum of three extremity skinfolds (TER) was used an index of relative subcutaneous fat distribution. Total blood cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and triglycerides (TG) were determined by standard procedures. Results : Age- and sex-associated variation in SAT of adolescents engaged in regular endurance training is similar to trends observed in the general population of youths, although SUM6 is less. An increase in SUM6, rather than the TER, is significantly associated with an increase in LDL-C, TG and TC:HDL in adolescent males, and a decline in HDL-C and an increase in TG in females. Conclusions : This study demonstrates the differential effects of gender on the pubertal development of SAT and blood lipoproteins in young distance runners and highlights the need to explore the interactions among sexual maturation, fatness, fat distribution, exercise training, and blood lipoproteins during adolescence.     

The impact of energy intake and energy expenditure of activity on the familial transmission of adiposity in an indian population

The effect of current energy intake and energy expenditure of activity on the familial transmission of five adiposity phenotypes was assessed using data from 473 nuclear families from the Chittoor district of Andhra Pradesh, India. Three measures of fatness, body mass index, the sum of six skinfolds, and the sum of three trunk skinfolds, and two measures of fat patterning, the ratio of trunk to extremity subcutaneous fat and the ratio of the subscapular skinfold to the sum of the subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds, were analyzed. Maximum likelihood estimates of the transmissibility of each phenotype were obtained under a pseudopolygenic model, after adjusting for the effects of (1) age within sex, and (2) current energy intake, energy expenditure of activity, and age within sex. The transmissible variance component for each phenotype was less after adjustment for age and energy than after adjustment for age alone. This difference was greater for the three measures of fatness than it was for the fat patterning phenotypes. However, even after adjusting for the effects of age, energy intake and energy expenditure, there is evidence of a low to moderate, but significant, transmissible component, which accounts for 4–22% of the variance in each of the five phenotypes. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Urban–rural contrasts in the growth status of school children in Oaxaca,Mexico

Objectives:?The growth status of school children resident in an urban colonia and in a rural indigenous community in Oaxaca, southern Mexico, was considered in the context of two objectives, current status and the magnitude of urban–rural differences over a span of about 30 years. Both communities were initially surveyed in 1968 and 1972.

Materials and methods:?Height, body mass, segment lengths, skeletal breadths, limb circumferences, and subcutaneous fatness were taken on 361 rural (177 boys, 184 girls) and 339 urban (173 boys, 166 girls) school children, aged 6–13 years. Additional variables were derived.

Results:?Height and body mass were significantly greater in urban compared with rural children. Sitting height, estimated leg length and skeletal breadths on the trunk were also larger in urban than in rural school children, but only the difference in skeletal breadths was significant after age and body size were statistically controlled. Urban and rural children did not consistently differ in skeletal breadths on the extremities and limb circumferences. Subcutaneous fatness was more variable. After controlling for age and body size, rural girls had thicker skinfolds. The magnitude of the urban–rural difference in boys in 2000 was greater for body mass, BMI and triceps skinfold, and reduced for height, sitting height, leg length, and arm and estimated arm muscle circumferences compared with 1970. The magnitude of the urban–rural difference in girls was greater in 2000 than 30 years earlier for body mass, height, sitting height, leg length and BMI. Urban–rural differences for arm and arm muscle circumferences and the triceps skinfold were slightly smaller over the interval.

Conclusions:?Children resident in an urban colonia were taller and heavier than children resident in a rural indigenous community. After controlling for age and body size, urban–rural differences in skeletal breadths and limb circumferences were reduced or eliminated, but skinfold thicknesses were greater in rural girls. The magnitude of urban–rural differences in body size has decreased over approximately 30 years in boys, but has increased in girls.     

Subcutaneous fat stores related to weight in full-term neonates

Background: Subcutaneous fat stores in newborns have been related to weight (W) and skinfolds (SK); both are influenced by gestational age (GA) and there are few studies analysing the association between them.

Aim: The present study assessed fat storage in term newborns that are appropriately nourished.

Subjects: Subjects were 1259 singleton term newborns, with appropriate weight for GA.

Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was utilized where weight, length, tricipital skinfold (TSK), subscapular skinfold (SSK) and mid upper arm (MUA) circumference were measured at birth. MUA areas and the TSK/W and SSK/W ratios were calculated. Data were analysed according to gender and GA.

Results: Weight and length were higher in males, while TSK, SSK, MUA fat area, MUA fat percentage, TSK/W and SSK/W were higher in females. Weight and length increased with GA in both genders. SK did not increase with GA, except the TSK in males. The TSK/W and SSK/W ratios decreased significantly with GA age in both genders. Percentiles of TSK/W and SSK/W ratios are presented.

Conclusion: The study provides a new perspective to the idea that fat storage increases continuously during the last period of gestation. The data presented showed that this phenomenon is not clearly demonstrated for full-term infants with appropriate weight for GA.