Genetic profile based upon 15 microsatellites of four caste groups of the eastern Indian state,Bihar

BACKGROUND: The formation of caste groups among the Hindu community and the practice of endogamy exert a great impact on the genetic structure and diversity of the Indian population. Allele frequency data of 15 microsatellite loci clearly portray the genetic diversity and relatedness among four socio-culturally advanced caste groups: Brahmin, Bhumihar, Rajput and Kayasth of Caucasoid ethnicity of Bihar. AIM: The study seeks to understand the impact of the man-made caste system on the genetic profile of the four major caste groups of Bihar. METHODS AND PROCEDURE: Computation of average heterozygosity, most frequent allele, allele diversity and coefficient of gene differentiation (Gst), along with genetic distance (DA)and principal coordinate analysis were performed to assess intra-population and inter-population diversity. MAIN OUTCOMES AND RESULTS: The average Gst value for all the loci was 0.012 +/- 0.0033, and the level of average heterozygosity was approximately 75.5%, indicating genetic similarity and intra-population diversity. Genetic distance (DA) values and the phylogenetic tree along with other higher caste groups of India indicate the relative distance between them. CONCLUSION: The present study clearly depicts the genetic profile of these caste groups, their inherent closeness in the past, and the impact of the imposed caste system that later restricted the gene flow. The study highlights the status of Bhumihar and Kayasth in the Hindu caste system. The former was found clustering with the Brahmin group (as expected, since Bhumihar is known to be a subclass of Brahmin), whereas the distance between the Brahmin and Kayasth caste groups was found to be large. North-eastern Indian Mongoloids form a separate cluster.     

Mitochondrial DNA variation in ranked caste groups of Maharashtra (India) and its implication on genetic relationships and origins

BACKGROUND: Polymorphism in mitochondrial DNA have been proven to be useful in studying genetic relationships and origins. The origins of caste populations have remained an enigma and genetic relationships among ranked caste groups are not uniform across geographical regions in India. AIM: This study was undertaken to investigate the nature and extent of mtDNA variation and relationships among caste groups of the western Indian State of Maharashtra and examine the implication of the results on their origins. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: One population was selected from each of the three caste ranks and blood samples were obtained with informed consent from unrelated individuals. The ranked caste populations were: upper (Brahmin; n=31), middle (Maratha; n=41), and lower (Nava Baudh; n=40). Ten relevant restriction site polymorphisms (RSPs) and one Insertion/Deletion (InDel) polymorphism were studied. The Hypervariable Segment 1 (HVS1) was sequenced in a subset of sampled individuals. RESULTS: Four RSP loci were found to be monomorphic in all populations. The InDel locus was monomorphic in two (Brahmin and Maratha) populations. One haplotype, constructed on the basis of the RSPs, was found to be predominant in all populations. Haplotype diversity was of similar magnitudes among Maratha and Nava Baudh (68% and 64%, respectively), and was much higher than among the Brahmin (49%). The frequency of haplogroup M was found to be high in all three groups, but, contrary to expectations, was highest in the upper caste Brahmin. About 10% of Brahmins, however, possessed the haplogroup C. Extensive variation was found in the HVS1 region. The nucleotide diversities and mean number of mismatches were found to be of similar magnitudes in all three groups. CONCLUSIONS: The upper caste group, Brahmin, is genetically distinct from the middle and lower caste groups. However, in view of the highest frequency of haplogroup M among the Brahmin, it appears that there may have been recruitment from other populations into this group.     

Diversity and Divergence Among the Tribal Populations of India

Tribal populations of the Indian subcontinent have been of longstanding interest to anthropologists and human geneticists. To investigate the relationship of Indian tribes to Indian castes and continental populations, we analyzed 45 unlinked autosomal STR loci in 9 tribal groups, 8 castes, and 18 populations from Africa, Europe and East Asia. South Indian tribal populations demonstrate low within‐population heterozygosity (range: 0.54 – 0.69), while tribal populations sampled further north and east have higher heterozygosity (range: 0.69 – 0.74). Genetic distance estimates show that tribal Indians are more closely related to caste Indians than to other major groups. Between‐tribe differentiation is high and exceeds that for eight sub‐Saharan African populations (4.8% vs. 3.7%). Telugu‐speaking populations are less differentiated than non‐Telugu speakers (F_ST: 0.029 vs. 0.079), but geographic distance was not predictive of genetic affinity between tribes. South Indian tribes show significant population structure, and individuals can be clustered statistically into groups that correspond with their tribal affiliation. These results are consistent with high levels of genetic drift and isolation in Indian tribal populations, particularly those of South India, and they imply that these populations may be potential candidates for linkage disequilibrium and association mapping.     

Genetic structure and admixture in urban populations of the Argentine North-West

BACKGROUND: From the ethnic point of view, the Argentine North-West (ANW) constitutes one of the most noticeable areas in the country due to the cultural peculiarities that integrate it to the Andean world and the ethno-historical and demographic characteristics of how it became populated. AIM: The study analysed the genetic structure and diversity of the ANW urban populations, and the contribution of parental populations to its genetic pool.Subjects and methods: Previously reported data on allele frequencies of HLA-A and HLA-B loci of 1293 individuals from Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Catamarca and La Rioja were used. Our estimates include: (a) genetic intra-population diversity; (b) genetic distances between populations; (c) linkage disequilibrium (LD); (d) admixture rates and genetic distances with respect to three parental populations (European, American Indian and African). RESULTS: Low intra-population genetic differentiation and low genetic distances between populations were found. Differential LD distribution varied according to province, with 60% variance due to intra-population differences. The Spanish contribution (50%) predominated in ANW, followed by the American Indian (40%) and African (10%) contributions, and a marked inter-population heterogeneity of genetic admixture rates was observed. The shortest genetic distance was found in the American Indian parental population, and the longest in the African parental population. CONCLUSION: Five hundred years after the Spanish conquest, urban populations at ANW that have probably been subject to the same evolutionary forces present low genetic diversity and a similar genetic structure. Genetic distances and admixture percentages observed agree with census and ethno-historical data on settlement in the region.     

Structure and genetic relationship of five populations from central India based on 15 autosomal STR loci

Aim: To estimate population parameters based on allele frequencies obtained for 15 polymorphic autosomal STR loci investigated in caste and tribal populations of central India (n?=?419).

Methods: Multiplexed PCR amplifications of the 15 Autosomal STR Loci were performed and amplified products were genotyped using multi-capillary electrophoresis on an ABI 3100 genetic analyser. Parameters of population genetics and forensic interest based on the allele frequencies were calculated. Genetic affinity of the studied populations among themselves and with previously reported populations of India was also analysed using distance-based NJ tree and using PCA plot.

Results: All the 15 STR loci were highly informative and discriminating, with CPD of 0.999 99. Except for Brahmins and Rajput, all other studied populations were in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE). The only tribe (Gond) population studied showed significant variation with the other four caste populations (Brahmin, Yadav, Rajput and Muslim) studied and formed a cluster with other previously reported tribal populations of India. Nei’s genetic distance based clustering pattern of the NJ tree and the PCA plot showed the same pattern of genetic relationship, i.e. caste and tribal populations formed a distinct cluster.

Conclusions: With respect to the distribution of alleles at each STR locus, the studied loci were found to be substantially polymorphic in all the studied populations, indicating good informativeness of all 15 STR markers. The population data generated in this study are useful for forensic, anthropological and demographic studies.     

Genetic variation observed at three tetrameric short tandem repeat loci HumTHO1, TPOX,and CSF1PO— in five ethnic population groups of northeastern India

This paper portrays the genetic variation observed at three tetrameric short tandem repeat (STR) loci HumTHO1, TPOX, and CSF1PO in five ethnic population groups from northeastern India. The study also specifies the suitability of use of these markers for forensic testing. The populations studied included three tribal groups (Kuki, Naga and Hmar), one Mongoloid caste group (Meitei), and a religious caste group (Manipuri Muslims). The loci were highly polymorphic in the populations, and all loci met Hardy–Weinberg expectations. No evidence for association of alleles among the loci was detected. The probability of match for the three loci of the most frequent genotype in the five population groups ranged between 2.6 × 10⁻⁴ and 6.6 × 10⁻⁵. The average heterozygosity among the population groups was approximately 70% with the overall extent of gene differentiation among the five groups being high (G_st = 0.046). Genetic affinity among the populations reveal very close association between the Kuki, Hmar, Naga, and Meitei. The Manipuri Muslims, despite being found in the same region, have had no admixture with these populations and maintain a substantial distance with the other groups. The genetic polymorphism data suggest that the studied systems can be used for human identity testing to estimate the frequency of a multiple locus STR DNA profile in population groups of northeastern India. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 13:23–29, 2001. © 2001 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Presence of three different paternal lineages among North Indians: A study of 560 Y chromosomes

Background: The genetic structure, affinities, and diversity of the 1 billion Indians hold important keys to numerous unanswered questions regarding the evolution of human populations and the forces shaping contemporary patterns of genetic variation. Although there have been several recent studies of South Indian caste groups, North Indian caste groups, and South Indian Muslims using Y-chromosomal markers, overall, the Indian population has still not been well studied compared to other geographical populations. In particular, no genetic study has been conducted on Shias and Sunnis from North India.

Aim: This study aims to investigate genetic variation and the gene pool in North Indians.

Subjects and methods: A total of 32 Y-chromosomal markers in 560 North Indian males collected from three higher caste groups (Brahmins, Chaturvedis and Bhargavas) and two Muslims groups (Shia and Sunni) were genotyped.

Results: Three distinct lineages were revealed based upon 13 haplogroups. The first was a Central Asian lineage harbouring haplogroups R1 and R2. The second lineage was of Middle-Eastern origin represented by haplogroups J2*, Shia-specific E1b1b1, and to some extent G* and L*. The third was the indigenous Indian Y-lineage represented by haplogroups H1*, F*, C* and O*. Haplogroup E1b1b1 was observed in Shias only.

Conclusion: The results revealed that a substantial part of today's North Indian paternal gene pool was contributed by Central Asian lineages who are Indo-European speakers, suggesting that extant Indian caste groups are primarily the descendants of Indo-European migrants. The presence of haplogroup E in Shias, first reported in this study, suggests a genetic distinction between the two Indo Muslim sects. The findings of the present study provide insights into prehistoric and early historic patterns of migration into India and the evolution of Indian populations in recent history.     

Society for the Study of Human Biology

Background: The present study examines genomic variation among eight endogamous groups (Bania, Kamboh, Lobana, Saini, Bishnoi, Sansi, Balmiki and Ramdasia) of Haryana, north-west India.

Aim: The present study examines the eight indel polymorphic loci in the population of Haryana. These loci were further used to compare the genomic diversity of the population in relation to other population groups of India.

Subjects and methods: DNA samples from 580 unrelated individuals belonging to eight endogamous groups were analysed at eight human-specific insertion/deletion polymorphic loci following standard protocols.

Results: All loci, except Alu CD4 and Alu APO, were found to be highly polymorphic. High average heterozygosity values (0.3886 among Kamboh to 0.4276 among Bishnoi) were observed. The overall coefficient of gene differentiation (0.0270) was found to be remarkably close to the Wahlund's variance (0.0258). Comparison with other Indian populations showed that populations of the same geographic region tend to cluster together, irrespective of their social status.

Conclusion: In various endogamous groups of Haryana, the time of divergence seems to be too small to reflect the genetic differences between them. It may be possible that gene flow occurred prior to the sub-division into the present endogamous groups or the present populations might have the same sources of genes resulting in a low level of genetic differentiation. Populations of Haryana were found to be more similar with populations of the neighbouring states of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.     

Genetics of apolipoprotein H (β 2 -glycoprotein I) polymorphism in India

Background : Human apolipoprotein H ( &#103 2 -glycoprotein I, apoH, protein; APOH, gene) is a single-chain glycoprotein that has been implicated in several metabolic pathways, including lipid metabolism, coagulation and production of antiphospholipid antibodies and many disease phenotypes. The structural, molecular and genetic bases of APOH have been studied in detail but population studies, especially from the Indian sub-continent, are limited. Objective : This study seeks to enlarge our understanding of APOH genetic diversity in human populations from different regions and social groups of India. Also, we examine the level and extent of genetic variation at this locus in world populations and its utility as a population genetic marker. Subjects and methods : Blood samples from 1381 unrelated and randomly selected individuals were screened for APOH genetic polymorphism. Eleven populations from North India (Brahmins, Banias, Jat Sikhs, Khatris, Scheduled Castes, Lobanas and Rajputs), West India (Brahmin and Patels) and Central India (Brahmins and Baiga tribe) were studied for APOH polymorphism using isoelectric focusing. Allele frequencies were calculated by the gene counting method. The results were statistically evaluated using chi-square statistics for regional and ethnic variation. Genetic distances were computed on Indian populations to determine the population affinities. Correspondence analysis was used to assess ethnic variation in world populations. Results : An interesting and wide genetic variation at this locus was observed in Indian populations. The frequency distribution of three observed alleles ranged from 0.034 to 0.091 for APOH*1, 0.852 to 0.917 for APOH*2 and 0.027 to 0.075 for APOH*3. The world's highest APOH*2 allele frequency was observed in the Patel (0.917) caste group from West India. Conclusions : Overall, the observed variation at this locus in Indian populations is comparable to many Caucasian populations. An analysis of world populations showed that APOH is a useful genetic marker for population and anthropological studies.     

Genetic variability at the D1S80 minisatellite: predominance of allele 18 among some Indian populations

Background: Hypervariable minisatellites are considered as useful genetic markers in population studies because they are highly polymorphic, multiallelic and co-dominant in nature. The D1S80 minisatellite is one of the well studied markers, and has been used for differentiating population groups of various geographic, linguistic, cultural and genetic origins.

Objective: The present study reports the genetic variation observed at the D1S80 minisatellite among seven anthropologically distinct ethnic groups from Kerala state in south India and is compared with other reported Indian and world populations.

Subjects and methods: DNA was isolated from the peripheral blood samples of 282 random, normal and healthy volunteers, PCR amplified and electrophoresed on 4% PAGE followed by silver staining.

Results: A total of 22 alleles (14–39 repeats) were detected with high heterozygosity (0.63–0.84) and Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values (0.63–0.83). Allele 18 was the predominant allele, except in Ezhavas. The comparison of allele frequency data with world populations including other studied Indian ethnic groups has revealed that the majority of Indian populations possessed allele 18 as the predominant allele. In contrast, allele 24 was reported to be the predominant allele worldwide with a few exceptions.

Conclusions: This study at the D1S80 minisatellite on seven ethnic groups will provide useful information for the Indian population genetic database. However, the most important observation was the predominance of allele 18 among the majority of Indian ethnic groups. The reason is not clear yet and thus further studies on Indian ethnic groups from different regions are necessary to find out the importance of allele 18 as the predominant allele in Indian population.     

Genetics of apolipoprotein H (beta2-glycoprotein I) polymorphism in India

BACKGROUND: Human apolipoprotein H (beta(2)-glycoprotein I, apoH, protein; APOH, gene) is a single-chain glycoprotein that has been implicated in several metabolic pathways, including lipid metabolism, coagulation and production of antiphospholipid antibodies and many disease phenotypes. The structural, molecular and genetic bases of APOH have been studied in detail but population studies, especially from the Indian subcontinent, are limited. OBJECTIVE: This study seeks to enlarge our understanding of APOH genetic diversity in human populations from different regions and social groups of India. Also, we examine the level and extent of genetic variation at this locus in world populations and its utility as a population genetic marker. Subjects and methods: Blood samples from 1381 unrelated and randomly selected individuals were screened for APOH genetic polymorphism. Eleven populations from North India (Brahmins, Banias, Jat Sikhs, Khatris, Scheduled Castes, Lobanas and Rajputs), West India (Brahmin and Patels) and Central India (Brahmins and Baiga tribe) were studied for APOH polymorphism using isoelectric focusing. Allele frequencies were calculated by the gene counting method. The results were statistically evaluated using chi-square statistics for regional and ethnic variation. Genetic distances were computed on Indian populations to determine the population affinities. Correspondence analysis was used to assess ethnic variation in world populations. RESULTS: An interesting and wide genetic variation at this locus was observed in Indian populations. The frequency distribution of three observed alleles ranged from 0.034 to 0.091 for APOH*1, 0.852 to 0.917 for APOH*2 and 0.027 to 0.075 for APOH*3. The world's highest APOH*2 allele frequency was observed in the Patel (0.917) caste group from West India. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the observed variation at this locus in Indian populations is comparable to many Caucasian populations. An analysis of world populations showed that APOH is a useful genetic marker for population and anthropological studies.     

Genetic heterogeneity in northeastern India: Reflection of Tribe–Caste continuum in the genetic structure

We critically examined the gene frequency data for 11 genetic markers commonly available in the literature for 22 populations of northeastern India in the light of their geographic, linguistic, and ethnic affiliations. The markers investigated were three blood groups (A₁A₂BO, MNS, and Rh), four serum proteins (KM, Gc, Hp, and Tf), and four enzyme systems (AP, AK, EsD, and Hb). The neighbor‐joining tree and multidimensional scaling of the distance matrix suggest relatively high genetic differentiation among the Mongoloid groups, with probably diverse origins when compared to the Caucasoid Indo‐European populations, which had probably come from relatively more homogeneous backgrounds. Broadly speaking, the pattern of population affinities conforms to the ethno‐historic, linguistic, and geographic backgrounds. An interesting and important feature that emerges from this analysis is the reflection of the effect of the sociological process of a Tribe–Caste continuum on genetic structure. While on one end we have the cluster of Caucasoid caste populations, the other end consists of Mongoloid tribal groups. In between are the populations which were originally tribes but now have become semi‐Hinduized caste groups, viz., Rajbanshi, Chutiya, and Ahom. These groups have currently assumed caste status and speak Indo‐European languages. Therefore, one may infer that what appears to be a purely sociological phenomenon of a Tribe–Caste continuum may well reflect in their genetic structure. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 16:334–345, 2004. © 2004 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Immunoglobulin (Gm and Km) allotypes in nine endogamous groups of West Bengal, India

Blood samples from 898 individuals of nine endogamous groups of West Bengal, India were typed for determining the haplotypic structure in the gamma-light chain (Gm) and kappa-light chain (Km) of immunoglobulin (IgG). The Gm haplotype frequencies detected by Glm (1), Glm (2) and G3m (5) markers suggest that in this eastern state of India there is considerable variation of frequencies of the typical Mongoloid haplotype Gm1,5, which shows a high incidence in Rajbanshi, Rabha, Garo and Lodha groups. On the contrary, this haplotype is probably absent in the high caste groups, Rarhi Brahmin and Vaidya, and is relatively infrequent in Jalia Kaibarta, a scheduled caste of the south-western part of the state. The Km1 allele is also high in frequency among Rajbanshi, Rabha, Garo and Munda in comparison with Rarhi Brahmin and Vaidya, suggesting the former four groups' strong Mongoloid affiliation. This survey signifies that there is considerable variation in the extent of Mongoloid admixture in Bengali populations. Such admixture is not restricted in specific social class either. It further demonstrates that heterogeneity of the genetic structure of Bengali populations do not correspond to the present social ranking on the basis of caste hierarchy.     

Population structure and genetic differentiation among the substructured Vysya caste population in comparison to the other populations of Andhra Pradesh,India

Objectives : The present paper focuses on the study of the patterns of genetic microdifferentiation among one of the substructured caste populations of Andhra Pradesh, namely Vysya, with reference to 17 other Telugu speaking populations from the same region of India. Subjects and methods : A total of 302 individuals from the three Vysya subgroups (101 of Arya Vysya, 100 from Kalinga Vysya and 101 from Thrivarnika) were typed in 17 blood groups and protein polymorphisms. Nei's gene diversity analysis, as well as neighbour-joining tree and UPGMA cluster diagrams, derived from standard genetic distances, R-matrix analysis and a regression model for investigating the patterns of external gene flow and genetic drift due to isolation under the island model, were done at two levels: (1) considering only the three Vysya populations and (2) considering common loci among 20 populations of Andhra Pradesh. Results : Seven of the 17 systems investigated were found to be monomorphic among all the three Vysya groups. The UPGMA tree and bidimensional scaling of the D 2 distances derived from R-matrix analysis show a very distinct cluster of Vysya populations. Application of the model of regression of average heterozygosity versus the distance of populations from the centroid shows the three Vysya populations placed as clear outliers above the theoretical regression line. Conclusions : Different approaches employed in this study give support to the hypothesis of different origin and/or demographic story for the three Vysya groups compared with other populations of Andhra Pradesh.     

Investigation of the genetic structure of Kabyle and Chaouia Algerian populations through the polymorphism of Alu insertion markers

Abstract

Background: In Algeria, as in all North Africa, Berbers constitute the old background of the population. Today, Berber speakers account for only ～ 25% of Algerians. This decline is the product of a complex human settlement from pre-history to recent invaders.

Aim: This study aims to determine the genetic diversity level within a sample of five Algerian Berber speaking populations in order to contribute to resolving issues about the North African population settlement.

Subjects and methods: Two Algerian Berber groups (Kabyle and Chaouia), originated from five administrative regions from Algeria, were typed for 11 Alu Insertions. Analysis has been based on Fst genetic distance, AMOVA, NMDS and distance to the centroid model.

Results: No genetic differentiation has been observed between all Algerian Berbers discarding any geographical or ethnic effect. Comparative analyses based on Fst genetic distance did not show significant affinities between North Africans and either South Europeans or Middle Easterners, except genetic proximity between Algerians and Iberians. The amount of genetic diversity among Algerians and North African populations detected by the distance to the centroid model was significant compared with other North Mediterranean populations.

Conclusion: A strong genetic homogeneity has been found between Algerian Berbers. Global genetic diversity based on Alu markers is following the isolation by distance model, except for some European populations.     

Population structure and genetic differentiation among the substructured Vysya caste population in comparison to the other populations of Andhra Pradesh,India

OBJECTIVES: The present paper focuses on the study of the patterns of genetic microdifferentiation among one of the substructured caste populations of Andhra Pradesh, namely Vysya, with reference to 17 other Telugu speaking populations from the same region of India. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 302 individuals from the three Vysya subgroups (101 of Arya Vysya, 100 from Kalinga Vysya and 101 from Thrivarnika) were typed in 17 blood groups and protein polymorphisms. Nei's gene diversity analysis, as well as neighbour-joining tree and UPGMA cluster diagrams, derived from standard genetic distances, R-matrix analysis and a regression model for investigating the patterns of external gene flow and genetic drift due to isolation under the island model, were done at two levels: (1) considering only the three Vysya populations and (2) considering common loci among 20 populations of Andhra Pradesh. RESULTS: Seven of the 17 systems investigated were found to be monomorphic among all the three Vysya groups. The UPGMA tree and bidimensional scaling of the D(2) distances derived from R-matrix analysis show a very distinct cluster of Vysya populations. Application of the model of regression of average heterozygosity versus the distance of populations from the centroid shows the three Vysya populations placed as clear outliers above the theoretical regression line. CONCLUSIONS: Different approaches employed in this study give support to the hypothesis of different origin and/or demographic story for the three Vysya groups compared with other populations of Andhra Pradesh.     

Genetic variation within the Tupi linguistic group: new data on three Amazonian tribes

A total of 505 individuals belonging to four populations of three Brazilian Indian tribes were variously studied in relation to 34 genetic systems, and the results were compared with South American Indian averages and five other Tupi populations. Rare variants (CdE of the Rh system, PGM₂ 11-1, CpA-CAY1, serum cholinesterase₂ C5 + and some Gm combinations) were observed with varying prevalences, and the three tribes showed different degrees of departure (28%–40% of differences of 10% or more in gene frequencies) from South American Indian averages. People from two communities who speak the same language and are labelled as belonging to the same tribe (Asurini) showed a large degree of genetic differentiation. Another of the tribes studied (Urubu-Kaapor) link through genetic distance analyses with two other tribes from the north of the continent, forming a distinct microevolutionary unit. These features emphasize the peculiarities of the genetic variation in populations with a hunter-gatherer, rudimentary agriculture type of economy.     

Genomic congruence of Indo-European speaking tribes of western India with Dravidian-speaking populations of southern India: A study of 20 autosomal DNA markers

Background: Due to its geographic location, Gujarat has played a major role in assimilation of different cultures with those of the subcontinent of India and is home to a number of Indo-European speaking tribes.

Aim: This study examined the genetic structure and extent of gene differentiation in eight Indo-European speaking tribal populations of southern Gujarat in western India. It also determined if there was any residual effect of linguistic and cultural assimilation of Indo-European speaking groups on the genomic profile of the tribes under study.

Methods: Twenty autosomal DNA markers (Alu InDels and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms) were analysed.

Results and conclusions: Average heterozygosity levels were high and degree of gene differentiation (G_ST = 2%) was small, indicating that genetic drift may not have played a major role in bringing out a characteristic genetic differentiation in these groups. The genetic structure of the populations revealed that neither of these groups was overtly admixed nor completely isolated. Other analyses undertaken on the population affiliations revealed only a slight influence of Indo-European speaking populations on the tribal groups of Gujarat, but there was an overwhelming influence of Dravidian speaking groups of southern India, suggesting that genetic affinities may not necessarily be dependent on linguistic similarities.     

A crypto-Dravidian origin for the nontribal communities of South India based on human leukocyte antigen class I diversity

The Dravidian communities are considered to be the original inhabitants of India, now restricted to South India. The southern most state, Kerala, is socio-culturally stratified into Hindus, Muslims and Christians on the basis of religion. The origin of these religious communities in Kerala is considered to be unique in comparison with that in other parts of the country. These communities were later influenced by the hierarchical caste structure established by the Hindu Brahmins. In the present study, we compared six nontribal (Namboothiri, Nair, Ezhava, Pulaya, Malabar Muslim and Syrian Christian) communities belonging to the major religious groups in Kerala (Hindu, Muslim and Christian) based on the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A, -B and -C diversity. Our aim was to understand the genomic substructuring associated with the changing social scenario in various caste and religious groups and compare it with the Dravidian tribal and other world populations. The present study reveals that the HLA diversity of the Dravidian communities is very distinct from that in the other world populations. It is obvious that the nontribal communities of Kerala display a greater Dravidian influence, but traces of genetic admixture with the Mediterranean, western European, central Asian and East Asian populations can be observed. This characterizes the crypto-Dravidian features of the nontribal communities of Kerala. Demic diffusion of the local progressive communities with the migrant communities may have given rise to crypto-Dravidian features among the nontribal communities of Kerala.     

Comparitive Study of Facial Index of Pushkarna Brahmin Community of Bikaner District of Rajasthan and Other Communities and Races

The facial index is length of the face from root of nose to the bottom of the chin, expressed as a percentage of the greatest breadth across the cheek bones. Racial differences are much more marked in relation to face than elsewhere, so it is very useful anthropologically. For this 100 males from Pushkarna Brahmin community between the age group of eighteen to thirty-five years were taken and their facial index was calculated.The result indicated that average facial index in Pushkarna Brahmin individuals was 95.86. Mostly they were hyperleptoprosopic. The average facial index of Pushkarna Brahmin individuals was not comparable to any other Indian groups studied so far. But it was very close to North European and Nigerian population.