Snacking patterns and nutrient density of snacks consumed by southern girls

We obtained information on the snacking patterns and nutrient contributions that snacks made to the total diet of 1224 adolescent girls living in eight southern states. We examined the data according to age (12-, 14-, and 16-year-old girls), race (black and white), and family per capita income (low, middle, and high). Snacking was common, with afternoon snacking at home occurring more frequently than snacking at other times or places regardless of race, age, or income group. Snack nutrient densities (amounts of nutrients per 1000 kcal) were generally lower than those of meals, but snacks contributed 52%, 43%, and 39% of the respective Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for riboflavin, vitamin C, and thiamin and notable amounts of other vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The nutrients that snacks provided in the lowest amounts relative to RDA were folacin (8%), vitamin D (9%), zinc (10%), and iron (11%).     

Food group intake patterns and associated nutrient profiles of the US population

We developed a method for evaluating food group intake patterns using dietary recall data (n = 11,529) from the second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. We used this method to examine the relationship of these food group intake patterns to nutrient intake and to selected biochemical indexes of nutritional status. We evaluated each 24-hour dietary intake recall for the presence or omission of five broad food groups--dairy, meat, grain, fruit, and vegetable. The five most prevalent patterns and the proportion of the population reporting them was as follows: all food groups, 33.6%; no fruit, 23.9%; no dairy and fruit, 9.0%; no dairy, 8.0%; and no fruit and vegetable, 5.6%. In the most prevalent pattern, all food groups were consumed; this was the only pattern that provided mean amounts of all of the key vitamins and minerals at levels greater than or equal to the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs). This pattern also was reported by the lowest proportion of individuals consuming less than 100% RDA of the key nutrients. Patterns in which both fruit and vegetables were consumed were associated with highest levels of serum vitamin C. The consistency of these results indicates that screening diets for food group consumption can quickly provide meaningful information about their quality.     

Food behaviour and consumption patterns in rural areas of Sirjan,Iran. 2. Factors affecting food consumption,energy and nutrient intakes and food beliefs

Family income had a statistically significantly positive effect on the consumption frequency of meat, legumes and vegetables and on intakes of energy, protein and certain vitamins. Similarly, mothers’ education level and age affected consumption of animal and plant foods and intakes of energy, several vitamins and calcium, while mothers’ age had a positive effect mainly on consumption of animal foods and intakes of energy, protein and several vitamins. Food beliefs of women as regards diet in lactation and the menstruation period were influenced by their age and education level, the latter also affecting to some extent the cooking practices. In general food budget increased as a function of increased income; the richest families, however, spent relatively more money on food, because they had to buy a larger proportion of their food.     

Intake levels and major food sources of energy and nutrients in the Taiwanese elderly

The purpose of this article is to examine dietary intake levels and major food sources of energy and nutrients for the Taiwanese elderly in order to relate nutrient intakes to food choices and to provide suggestions for dietary improvement. The data were derived from the 24-hour recalls from 1,911 subjects (955 males and 956 females) aged 65 and above, who participated in the Elderly NAHSIT carried out from 1999 to 2000. The differences in food consumption patterns between the elderly and younger adults (aged 19 to 64) were also evaluated by comparison with data obtained from NAHSIT 1993-1996. The results revealed that cereals/roots, meat, other protein-rich foods and fats/oils contributed most to daily energy intake. The energy contributions from fats/oils, poultry, meat, other protein-rich foods, refreshments/snacks, alcoholic beverages, and miscellaneous food groups were lower in elderly diets compared with those of younger adults. Meat and cereals/roots were the major food sources of protein. The main carbohydrate-contributing food group was cereals/roots, while primary lipid sources were meat and fats/oils for the elderly. The food groups with a high contribution to vitamin intake were the following: vegetables for vitamin A; meat and cereals/roots for vitamin B1; dairy products, vegetables, cereals/roots and meat for vitamin B2; cereals/roots, seafood and meat for niacin; meat, vegetables and cereals/roots for vitamin B6; plant oils for vitamin E; and vegetables and fruit for vitamin C. The highest ranked food sources for minerals are listed as follows: dairy products, vegetables and seafood for calcium; dairy products and cereals/roots for phosphorous; vegetables and meat for iron; and vegetables, cereals/ roots, other protein-rich foods and seafood for magnesium. The elderly were found to consume more salt, dairy products and vegetables, but less poultry and meat than their younger counterparts. In summary, differences in consumption patterns between the elderly and younger adults was reflected in differences in common food sources of energy and specific nutrients. The dietary patterns of the elderly are in general "healthier" than that of younger adults except for higher salt intake among the elderly. Nonetheless, our elderly population needs to increase their intake of calcium, magnesium, vitamins E and B6, and dietary fiber, and decrease their consumption of salt. Promoting the ingestion of whole-grain and nut products may be a useful strategy to improve the nutritional status of the Taiwanese elderly, aiming at increasing the percentage of energy obtained from carbohydrates and the daily intake of vitamins E and B6, magnesium, and dietary fiber. Suitable strategies are also needed to improve the calcium status of Taiwanese elderly, particularly as a high proportion of them are either lactose intolerant or dislike dairy products.     

A safe strategy for addition of vitamins and minerals to foods

Summary Addition of vitamins and minerals to foods must be done without health risk to any consumer group. International expert groups have aimed at establishing tolerable upper intake levels (ULs) for vitamins and minerals although lack of solid data on their safety is a major obstacle to this work. In this paper, we summarize the existing ULs and suggest the use of guidance levels (GLs) set by others and temporary guidance levels (TGLs) proposed here, whenever no consensus UL has been established for adults. We suggest the use of body surface area ratios to establish similar levels for younger age groups. The levels are applied in a model for calculation of safe fortification levels for all ages.We have estimated the upper 95^th percentile intake of vitamins and minerals from food in various Danish age and gender groups and suggest that a daily multivitaminmineral pill is included in the calculation of total dietary intake levels of all vitamins and minerals. By subtracting this dietary intake level from the UL, GL or TGL, we calculate the amount that can be safely used for fortification. Since safety must be assured for all age groups, the smallest difference relative to energy intake calculated for any age group is proposed as the maximal allowance (MA) for fortification with each nutrient. We suggest that the MA should be expressed in weight units per energy unit in order to distribute it equally between potentially fortifiable food groups according to their usual contribution to total energy intakes.     

Nutritional status of children and teenagers in relation to vitamin and mineral use

The use of vitamin and mineral supplements by children and teenagers in NHANES II was examined for relationships with demographic variables, dietary intakes from food, and biochemical measures of nutritional status and was compared with use reported in other nutrition studies. The number of regular supplement users decreased with age until about age 13, when the percentage of boys using supplements plateaued at about 10% but the percentage of use among girls increased. In general, children were more likely to receive supplements if they came from families with a household head who was white and better educated. Children from the lowest income level (poverty index less than 1.0) received supplements less frequently than other children. Among preschool children, supplement use by mothers and children was highly correlated. For most age groups, supplement users consumed more vitamin C from food than non-users. Users of supplements had higher mean serum levels of vitamins A and C and a lower incidence of low serum values for those nutrients than non-users. Fewer children took iron supplements than vitamin supplements, but most of the iron supplements were taken as part of a multiple vitamin plus iron preparation. There were no significant differences in either mean values for indexes of iron status or the percentage of low iron status values between children who received supplemental iron and those who did not.     

Food consumption,iron intake and dietary patterns of urban pregnant women from different socioeconomic populations in central Iran

Between January 1980-February 1981, researchers enrolled 400 low and middle socioeconomic women who were pregnant (at least 12 weeks gestation) from 2 prenatal clinics in Shiraz, Iran to assess their dietary patterns, food consumption, and iron intake. 294 women attended the prenatal clinic at the Helal-Ahmar Maternity Hospital and 106 the prenatal clinic at the Hafez Hospital. The researchers determined food consumption by dividing household consumption by an adjusted household size which included caloric needs of various age groups. Pregnant women of higher income tended to consume rice (p.005), meat (p.0001), poultry (p.0001), and greens and herbs (p.0001) more so than low income women. The poorer a household was the more likely the pregnant woman would eat more bread (p.005). The same foods, except bread, were negatively associated with household size, however (at most p.002). All women consumed 28 mg/day of iron and total iron intake of low income women was comparable to that of higher income groups. The leading source of dietary intake was bread regardless of income group. Yet as income rose, the proportion of dietary iron from bread fell and that from meat and poultry rose. For example, bread provided 82.3% of dietary iron for the very low income group, but only provided 59.2% for the middle and high income group. On the other hand, meat and poultry only provided 3.7% for the very low income group, but 15.2% for the middle and high income group. Moreover 14.8% of pregnant women in the very low and low income groups were anemic compared to only 3.4% in the middle low and middle high income groups during 31-40 weeks gestation. Perhaps the iron in the diet of the more affluent women was more bioavailable than that in the diet of the less affluent women.     

Food Group Intake and Micronutrient Adequacy in Adolescent Girls

This study explores the contribution of food group intakes to micronutrient adequacy among 2379 girls in the National Growth and Health Study during three age periods (9–13, 14–18, and 19–20 years). Data on food and nutrient intakes from 3-day diet records over 10 years were used to estimate mean intakes and percent meeting Dietary Guidelines (DGA) recommendations for food intakes and Institute of Medicine’s recommendations for vitamins and minerals. More than 90% of girls failed to consume the recommended amounts of fruit, vegetables and dairy; 75% consumed less than the recommended amounts in the “meat” group. The vast majority of girls of all ages had inadequate intakes of calcium, magnesium, potassium, and vitamins D and E. In contrast, they consumed >750 kcal/day (~40% of total energy) from the DGA category of solid fat and added sugars, about five times the recommended maximum intakes. This study shows the importance of consuming a variety of foods in all five food groups, including those that are more energy dense such as dairy and meats, in order to meet a broad range of nutrient guidelines. Diet patterns that combined intakes across food groups led to greater improvements in overall nutritional adequacy.     

Food intake of institutionalized women over 80 years of age

Food intake of 30 women over 80 years of age and residing in a long-term care facility was determined for a five-day period using the weighed intake method. Purposes of the study were to examine the contribution to nutrient intake of foods from eight major food groups; to characterize intake by time of day; and to examine the effect of age on nutrient intake. The results indicated that intakes of calcium, thiamin, vitamin A, zinc, and protein were below recommended levels. Analysis of intake by food group revealed that the grain group was the primary source of energy and many nutrients. Percentage consumption of foods in this group was significantly higher than that of vegetables or meat and alternates. Analysis of intake by time of day indicated that more energy was consumed at breakfast than at dinner. Advanced age was negatively correlated with overall dietary adequacy, although the distribution of energy intake from the eight food groups did not change with age. Implications of the results, for these subjects and similar groups of elderly, are discussed.     

Changes in intake of key nutrients over 17 years during adult life of a British birth cohort

An investigation was carried out to determine whether there were significant changes in nutrient intake over 17 years of adult life. The Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development is a longitudinal study of a nationally representative cohort of singleton births in the UK in 1946. Of this cohort, 1253 survey members provided information on diet recorded in a 5 d diary at age 36 years in 1982, 43 years in 1989 and 53 years in 1999. The outcome measures were mean intakes of energy, macronutrients, minerals and vitamins. There were significant changes in the intake of most nutrients in 1999 compared with previous years. Intakes of fat, Na, Fe and Cu have fallen, but there was a rising trend in the intakes of Ca, P, carotene, thiamin, pyridoxine, folic acid and vitamins C, D and E in both men and women. Additionally, intakes of K, Mg and vitamin K1 have risen in women. There were significant gender differences, women showing a higher percentage rise in the intakes of carotene, riboflavin, folic acid, vitamin C and vitamin E. These changes were related to changes in the consumption of certain key foods, such as the increased consumption of fruit and vegetables and a shift away from whole milk, butter and red meat. Most of these trends are in line with accepted nutritional guidelines. How far these changes are due to consumer choice and real changes in food composition or are due to artefacts inherent in the methodology is discussed.     

Meat, poultry, and fish consumption and nutrient intake in the healthy elderly.

Food selection of the healthy elderly may be influenced by life-styles, the food supply, and recommendations related to diet and disease. This study used food group analysis of 3-day diet records to examine red meat, poultry, and fish consumption by free-living, healthy elderly individuals. Dietary data were from 122 women and 97 men (median age = 75 years) who were participants in the New Mexico Aging Process Study in 1984. Mean dietary intake was 1,494 kcal/day for women and 2,079 kcal/day for men--82% and 94% of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), respectively. Protein, iron, and selected B vitamins were above 100% of the RDA. Women's mean daily intake of meat/poultry/fish was 87.7 g (52.1 g meat, 23.6 g poultry, 12.0 g fish); men's intake of meat/poultry/fish was 121.2 g (78.4 g meat, 21.2 g poultry, 21.6 g fish). Of the total red meat, more than 50% was beef, 20% was pork/ham, and more than 10% was processed meat. For women, meat/poultry/fish provided 14% of total dietary energy, 37% of protein, 13% to 32% of selected B vitamins and iron, 20% of fat, and 34% of cholesterol. Percentages were similar for men. There was no significant association between age and total dietary intake, but food group consumption had distinct associations with age for women and men. Our findings indicate that a moderate but not excessive intake of meat/poultry/fish made a substantial contribution to nutrient intake. The fat contribution of these food groups could be decreased by emphasizing lower-fat selections of meat, poultry, and fish.     

The relationship between household income and dietary intakes of 1-10 year old urban Malaysian

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Diet plays an important role in growth and development of children. However, dietary intakes of children living in either rural or urban areas can be influenced by household income. This cross-sectional study examined energy, nutrient and food group intakes of 749 urban children (1-10 years old) by household income status.

SUBJECTS/METHODS

Children''s dietary intakes were obtained using food recall and record for two days. Diet adequacy was assessed based on recommended intakes of energy and nutrients and food group servings.

RESULTS

For toddlers, all nutrients except dietary fiber (5.5 g) exceeded recommended intakes. Among older children (preschoolers and school children), calcium (548 mg, 435 mg) and dietary fiber (7.4 g, 9.4 g) did not meet recommendations while percentage of energy from total fat and saturated fats exceeded 30% and 10%, respectively. The mean sodium intakes of preschoolers (1,684 mg) and school children (2,000 mg) were relatively high. Toddlers in all income groups had similar energy and nutrient intakes and percentages meeting the recommended intakes. However, low income older children had lowest intakes of energy (P < 0.05) and most nutrients (P < 0.05) and highest proportions that did not meet recommended energy and nutrient intakes. For all food groups, except milk and dairy products, all age groups had mean intakes below the recommended servings. Compared to middle and high income groups, low income preschoolers had the lowest mean intake of fruits (0.07 serving), meat/poultry (0.78 serving) and milk/dairy products (1.14 serving) while low income toddlers and school children had the least mean intake of fruits (0.09 serving) and milk/dairy products (0.54 serving), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Low socioeconomic status, as indicated by low household income, could limit access to adequate diets, particularly for older children. Parents and caregivers may need dietary guidance to ensure adequate quantity and quality of home food supply and foster healthy eating habits in children.     

Family dinner and diet quality among older children and adolescents

CONTEXT: The proportion of children eating dinner with their families declines with age and has decreased over time. Few data exist concerning the nutritional effect of eating family dinner. OBJECTIVE: To examine the associations between frequency of eating dinner with family and measures of diet quality. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SETTING: A national convenience sample. PARTICIPANTS: There were 8677 girls and 7525 boys in the study, aged 9 to 14 years, who were children of the participants in the ongoing Nurses' Health Study II. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: We collected data from a self-administered mailed survey, including food and nutrient intakes from a validated semiquantitative food frequency questionnaire. Main outcome measures included servings per day of selected foods and food groups, daily intakes of selected macronutrients and micronutrients, and frequency of multivitamin use. RESULTS: Approximately 17% of participants ate dinner with members of their family never or some days, 40% on most days, and 43% every day. More than half of the 9-year-olds ate family dinner every day, whereas only about one third of 14-year-olds did so. In age- and sex-adjusted logistic regression models, the odds ratios associated with a frequency of family dinner of most days compared with never or some days, or every day compared with most days, were as follows: for eating at least 5 servings per day of fruits and vegetables, 1.45 (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.37-1.53); for eating any fried foods away from home, 0.67 (95% CI, 0.64-0.70); and for drinking any soda, 0.73 (95% CI, 0.66-0.80). Multiple linear regression showed that an increased frequency of family dinner was also associated with substantially higher intake of several nutrients, including fiber, calcium, folate, iron, vitamins B6, B12, C, and E; lower glycemic load; and lower intake of saturated and trans fat as a percentage of energy. We observed little or no effect on intakes of whole dairy products, red meat, or snack foods. Patterns were similar for boys and girls. CONCLUSIONS: Eating family dinner was associated with healthful dietary intake patterns, including more fruits and vegetables, less fried food and soda, less saturated and trans fat, lower glycemic load, more fiber and micronutrients from food, and no material differences in red meat or snack foods.     

Street foods and dietary intakes of Nigerian urban market women

The food and nutrient intake of 197 market women aged 19-66 years (mean 41 years) have been determined using questionnaire and 24-hour dietary recall. The contributions of street foods (SF) to total intake of food and nutrients were determined in order to quantify the importance of SF as a source of food and nutrients for these women. Eighty-three of the women were of child-bearing age (< 49 years), Group I, while 114 were not (> 49 years). Overall, SF provided 63% of the weight of total food consumed. The mean energy intake was 11.5 MJ with the older women Group II consuming significantly (P < 0.05) higher than the younger age group (Group I). The contribution of SF to energy intake was similar (59%) for both groups. The older women (Group II) also consumed significantly (P < 0.05) more total protein than the younger women (110 vs 80 g) although SF contributed similar percentages (58 vs 59%). Mean calcium intake was high for the subjects (618 mg) but no significant differences were found between the two age cohorts. The proportion of calcium intake supplied by SF was 79% for Group I and 81% for Group II. There was a wide variation (8.1-16.5 mg) in total daily iron intake. Overall SF provided 57% of the pooled mean intake (12 mg). Mean iron intake for Group II was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of Group I. The contribution of SF to the intakes of vitamins was above 50% except for thiamin (47%) in the younger age cohort and vitamin A (46%) in the older age group. The results suggest therefore that street foods constitute the major sources of dietary energy and other nutrients for market women in Nigeria.     

Designing snacks to address micronutrient deficiencies in rural Kenyan schoolchildren

Three snacks were designed to improve nutrient intakes among school-age children living in rural Kenya. Snacks containing animal-source foods (milk and meat) provided more nutrients than an equicaloric vegetarian snack. The vegetarian snack provided extra vitamin A (primarily from fortified cooking fat; the milk snack was rich in calcium, vitamin A, and vitamin B-12; and the meat snack supplied vitamin B-12, iron, and zinc. When changes in intakes from baseline to the feeding period were compared across the 4 groups, total energy intake increased the most for children in the meat group and the least for children in the control group. Differences in energy intakes across the 3 feeding groups were primarily caused by decreases in home intake for the vegetarian and milk snack groups. It is important to evaluate the change in home intakes as well as intakes from the foods provided by the study when evaluating the effect of feeding programs on nutrient adequacy.     

Street foods and dietary intakes of Nigerian urban market women

The food and nutrient intake of 197 market women aged 19-66 years (mean 41 years) have been determined using questionnaire and 24-hour dietary recall. The contributions of street foods (SF) to total intake of food and nutrients were determined in order to quantify the importance of SF as a source of food and nutrients for these women. Eighty-three of the women were of child-bearing age (<49 years), Group I, while 114 were not (> 49 years). Overall, SF provided 63% of the weight of total food consumed. The mean energy intake was 11.5 MJ with the older women Group II consuming significantly (P < 0.05) higher than the younger age group (Group I). The contribution of SF to energy intake was similar (59%) for both groups. The older women (Group II) also consumed significantly (P < 0.05) more total protein than the younger women (110 vs 80 g) although SF contributed similar percentages (58 vs 59%). Mean calcium intake was high for the subjects (618 mg) but no significant differences were found between the two age cohorts. The proportion of calcium intake supplied by SF was 79% for Group I and 81% for Group II. There was a wide variation (8.1-16.5 mg) in total daily iron intake. Overall SF provided 57% of the pooled mean intake (12 mg). Mean iron intake for Group II was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that of Group I. The contribution of SF to the intakes of vitamins was above 50% except for thiamin (47%) in the younger age cohort and vitamin A (46%) in the older age group. The results suggest therefore that street foods constitute the major sources of dietary energy and other nutrients for market women in Nigeria.     

Dietary intake and nutritional status of children and adolescents in Europe

The objective of this project was to collect and evaluate data on nutrient intake and status across Europe and to ascertain whether any trends could be identified. Surveys of dietary intake and status were collected from across Europe by literature search and personal contact with country experts. Surveys that satisfied a defined set of criteria -- published, based on individual intakes, post-1987, adequate information provided to enable its quality to be assessed, small age bands, data for sexes separated above 12 years, sample size over 25 and subjects representative of the population -- were selected for further analysis. In a small number of cases, where no other data for a country were available or where status data were given, exceptions were made. Seventy-nine surveys from 23 countries were included, and from them data on energy, protein, fats, carbohydrates, alcohol, vitamins, minerals and trace elements were collected and tabulated. Data on energy, protein, total fat and carbohydrate were given in a large number of surveys, but information was very limited for some micronutrients. No surveys gave information on fluid intake and insufficient gave data on food patterns to be of value to this project. A variety of collection methods were used, there was no consistency in the ages of children surveyed or the age cut-off points, but most surveys gave data for males and females separately at all ages. Just under half of the surveys were nationally representative and most of the remainder were regional. Only a small number of local surveys could be included. Apart from anthropometric measurements, status data were collected in only seven countries. Males had higher energy intakes than females, energy intake increased with age but levelled off in adolescent girls. Intakes of other nutrients generally related to energy intakes. Some north-south geographical trends were noted in fat and carbohydrate intakes, but these were not apparent for other nutrients. Some other trends between countries were noted, but there were also wide variations within countries. A number of validation studies have shown that misreporting is a major problem in dietary surveys of children and adolescents and so all the dietary data collected for this project should be interpreted and evaluated with caution. In addition, dietary studies rely on food composition tables for the conversion of food intake data to estimated nutrient intakes and each country uses a different set of food composition data which differ in definitions, analytical methods, units and modes of expression. This can make comparisons between countries difficult and inaccurate. Methods of measuring food intake are not standardised across Europe and intake data are generally poor, so there are uncertainties over the true nutrient intakes of children and adolescents across Europe. There are insufficient data on status to be able to be able to draw any conclusions about the nutritional quality of the diets of European children and adolescents.     

Food prices and poverty negatively affect micronutrient intakes in Guatemala

Limited empirical evidence exists for how economic conditions affect micronutrient nutrition. We hypothesized that increasing poverty and rising food prices would reduce consumption of high-quality "luxury" foods, leading to an increased probability of inadequacy for several nutrients. The 2006 Guatemala National Living Conditions Survey was analyzed. First, energy and nutrient intakes and adequacy levels were calculated. Second, the income-nutrient relationships were investigated by assessing disparities in intakes, determining income-nutrient elasticities, and modeling nutrient intakes by reductions in income. Third, the food price-nutrient relationships were explored through determination of price-nutrient elasticities and modeling 2 price scenarios: an increase in food prices similar in magnitude to the food price crisis of 2007-2008 and a standardized 10% increase across all food groups. Disparities in nutrient intakes were greatest for vitamin B-12 (0.38 concentration index) and vitamin A (0.30 concentration index); these nutrients were highly and positively correlated with income (r = 0.22-0.54; P < 0.05). Although the baseline probability of inadequacy was highest for vitamin B-12 (83%), zinc showed the greatest increase in probability of inadequacy as income was reduced, followed by folate and vitamin A. With rising food prices, zinc intake was most acutely affected under both scenarios (P < 0.05) and folate intake in the poorest quintile (+7 percentage points) under the 10% scenario. Price-nutrient elasticities were highest for vitamin B-12 and the meat, poultry, and fish group (-0.503) and for folate and the legumes group (-0.343). The economic factors of food prices and income differentially influenced micronutrient intakes in Guatemala, notably zinc and folate intakes.