Field Triage in Disasters

In man-made andnatural disasters, prehospital providers andtheir emergency medical services systems may find it necessary to shift their triage methodology from a daily operational framework of treating the most severely injured patient first andproviding the highest level of care for each patient to the concept of providing the greatest good for the greatest number of casualties. In a scenario where there are an overwhelming number of casualties, this shift will be necessary, both to identify critically injured patients who can benefit from immediate, life-saving interventions andto preserve prehospital andhospital resources. This report examines triage issues as they apply to mass casualty events.     

W EAPONS OF M ASS D ESTRUCTION : E MERGENCY C ARE

Objectives. The authors investigated the dying patterns, and cause and preventability of deaths in a major earthquake disaster, and estimated the cost needed to enhance emergency medical services (EMS) response to prevent “unnecessary” deaths. Methods. The authors reviewed autopsy data in the Hanshin-Awaji (Kobe) earthquake of 1995. A survival analysis was performed to determine the time course and pattern of dying of these deaths. A cost analysis to estimate acceptable cost for EMS to reduce fatalities was also performed. Potentially salvageable life-years based on expected life-years among fatalities were calculated and used to simulate an acceptable cost for an enhanced EMS disaster response. Results. The authors analyzed 5,411 fatalities. More than 80% of these patients died within three hours. There were statistically significant differences in survival/dying patterns among causes of death. Thirteen percent of victims experienced a protracted death, which could have been prevented with earlier medical or surgical intervention. The monetary cost of these lost lives was estimated at approximately $600 million US. Conclusions. Survival analysis revealed a significant population of potentially salvageable patients if more timely and appropriate medical intervention had been available immediately after the earthquake. Based on our cost analysis, and assuming a 1% annual probability of an earthquake and a 30% enhanced lifesaving capability of the EMS effort, approximately $2 million annually could be a reasonable expenditure to achieve the goal of reducing preventable deaths in disasters.     

Prehospital deaths in the Yorkshire Health Region.

OBJECTIVES: To estimate the proportion of prehospital deaths in a British population of trauma victims which may be preventable, and to investigate the effect of death at the scene and death in transit on potential survivorship. METHODS: Blinded review, by four specialists with an interest in trauma, of necropsy results and details of age, sex, and mechanism of injury for prehospital trauma deaths in the Yorkshire Health Region in a 12 month period. RESULTS: Complete records were traced on 305 of 337 trauma deaths, 190 being recorded as dead on arrival of emergency services and 115 dead on arrival at hospital. In the group declared dead at the scene, three of the four assessors considered 93% of deaths to have been inevitable and only 2% as potential survivors (25% of this group sustaining inevitably fatal injuries such as brain avulsion or decapitation). In the group dead on arrival 81% were felt to be inevitable deaths and 5% potential survivors. CONCLUSIONS: There seems to be less scope for salvage of victims of trauma death in a British population than has been recorded in America, possibly due to a higher proportion of blunt trauma deaths here. Those who die in transit consist of a less severely injured group with a higher potential for survival.     

Prehospital care of tsunami victims in Thailand: description and analysis

INTRODUCTION: On 26 December 2004 at 09:00 h, an earthquake of 9.0 magnitude (Richter scale) struck the area off of the western coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia, triggering a Tsunami. As of 25 January 2005, 5,388 fatalities were confirmed, 3,120 people were reported missing, and 8,457 people were wounded in Thailand alone. Little information is available in the medical literature regarding the response and restructuring of the prehospital healthcare system in dealing with major natural disasters. OBJECTIVE: The objective of the study was to analyze the prehospital medical response to the Tsunami in Thailand, and to identify possible ways of improving future preparedness and response. METHODS: The Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) Home Front Command Medical Department sent a research delegation to study the response of the Thai medical system to the 2004 earthquake and Tsunami disaster. The delegation met with Thai healthcare and military personnel, who provided medical care for and evacuated the Tsunami victims. The research instruments included questionnaires (open and closed questions), interviews, and a review of debriefing session reports held in the days following the Tsunami. RESULTS: Beginning the day after the event, primary health care in the affected provinces was expanded and extended. This included: (1) strengthening existing primary care facilities with personnel and equipment; (2) enhancing communication and transportation capabilities; (3) erecting healthcare facilities in newly constructed evacuation centers; (4) deploying mobile, medical teams to make house calls to flood refugees in affected areas; and (5) deploying ambulance crews to the affected areas to search for survivors and provide primary care triage and transportation. CONCLUSION: The restructuring of the prehospital healthcare system was crucial for optimal management of the healthcare needs of Tsunami victims and for the reduction of the patient loads on secondary medical facilities. The disaster plan of a national healthcare system should include special consideration for the restructuring and reinforcement prehospital system.     

2009年度自贡市急救中心院前急救流行病学研究

目的研究自贡市急救中心院前急救流行病学特征。方法回顾性分析2009年度自贡市急救中心出诊的院前急救数据,研究院前急救疾病谱及性别、年龄构成,并分析时刻及季节分布特点,描述院前急救转归。结果 2009年度自贡市急救中心院前急救共4 588例,排前6位疾病依次为损伤、中毒和外因的某些其他后果（45.6%）,循环系统疾病（15.0%）,呼吸系统疾病（6.3%）,神经系统疾病（6.0%）,精神和行为障碍（5.6%）,消化系统疾病（4.9%）;性别构成男性多于女性（P〈0.05）;年龄构成以中老年较多,青少年儿童较少（P〈0.05）;时刻分布规律高峰点为15点40分（P〈0.05）,季节分布以冬季较多（P〈0.05）;患者转归以住院、留院观察为主,院前死亡人数占比例为3.8%。结论根据院前急救流行病学规律,可以合理配置急诊资源,增强应急救援能力,满足民众不断增加的医疗需求。     

The earthquake and tsunami - observations by Japanese physicians since the 11 March catastrophe

Japan was struck by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake and a tsunami on 11 March 2011. Although this catastrophe has caused the most devastating damage to Japan since World War II, we believe that our systematic preparation for disasters somewhat alleviated the damage. Learning lessons from the magnitude 7.3 Great Hanshin earthquake in 1995, the government organized approximately 700 medical teams specialized in disaster management. In this earthquake of 2011, hundreds of medical teams were successfully deployed and started operations within the first 72 hours. Furthermore, the internet, which was not commonly used in 1995, made significant contributions in communication among clinicians and enabled them to promptly identify the needs of the affected hospitals. In addition, medical professional societies took leadership in the logistics of transferring victims away from the disaster zone. We also observed that the spectrum of causes of death is distinct between the earthquakes of 1995 and 2011. In 1995, many victims died from trauma, including crash injury, and delays in providing hemodialysis contributed to additional deaths. In 2011, in contrast, many victims died from drowning in the tsunami, and most survivors did not have life-threatening injuries.     

International EMS: lessons learned in Costa Rica

Health care planners in Costa Rica, seeking to upgrade their emergency medical services, contracted with United States agencies for additional funding and established a national program for the development of an emergency medical service system. Three years later some of the problems and accomplishments of both the planning and early implementation phases have been identified and include the importance of a detailed assessment of current system components, resources, and priorities; the early implementation of an accurate data collection system; early planning for system self-sufficiency; the vital role of the lead agency with formal lines of authority; the careful development of local expertise and leadership. The continuing efforts in Costa Rica provide a valuable resource for other countries as they face their emergency health care needs.     

Survival and cost analysis of fatalities of the kobe earthquake in Japan

Objectives

The authors investigated the dying patterns, and cause and preventability of deaths in a major earthquake disaster, and estimated the cost needed to enhance emergency medical services (EMS) response to prevent “unnecessary” deaths.

Methods

The authors reviewed autopsy data in the Hanshin-Awaji (Kobe) earthquake of 1995. A survival analysis was performed to determine the time course and pattern of dying of these deaths. A cost analysis to estimate acceptable cost for EMS to reduce fatalities was also performed. Potentially salvageable life-years based on expected life-years among fatalities were calculated and used to simulate an acceptable cost for an enhanced EMS disaster response.

Results

The authors analyzed 5,411 fatalities. More than 80% of these patients died within three hours. There were statistically significant differences in survival/dying patterns among causes of death. Thirteen percent of victims experienced a protracted death, which could have been prevented with earlier medical or surgical intervention. The monetary cost of these lost lives was estimated at approximately $600 million US.

Conclusions

Survival analysis revealed a significant population of potentially salvageable patients if more timely and appropriate medical intervention had been available immediately after the earthquake. Based on our cost analysis, and assuming a 1% annual probability of an earthquake and a 30% enhanced lifesaving capability of the EMS effort, approximately $2 million annually could be a reasonable expenditure to achieve the goal of reducing preventable deaths in disasters.     

Field management and critical care in mass disasters

As previously discussed, the majority of injury cases do not necessarily involve dramatic life-saving actions, but rather very rudimentary, promptly applied precautions. For most victims of trauma, therefore, we offer reassurance and simple compassion in their time of need. One of the more important lessons to be learned here is that, beyond prehospital injury "management" or "treatment," we should always remember to provide the best possible prehospital injury care. By responding as soon as possible and by delivering reassurance and compassion to those who are injured and frightened, we are providing one of the most sacred aspects of the Hippocratic mission. Despite wonderful technologic advances and the need for aggressiveness in disaster management, these humanistic values must always be maintained by those to whom care is entrusted. Successful transport of disaster victims, whether in the prehospital phase or during interhospital transfer, requires careful attention to treatment priorities, such as simple measures for airway control and ventilation, and care to prevent further injuries by appropriate immobilization techniques. The use of fully equipped teams of multidisciplinary critical care specialists in mass disaster situations is in its infancy. It is clear that with properly adapted hardware and personnel trained to function in adverse environments while effectively delivering intensive care to a large number of patients with a variety of clinical syndromes, survival can be significantly increased for the most acutely ill.     

Spinal cord injury management and rehabilitation: highlights and shortcomings from the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan

Rathore FA, Farooq F, Muzammil S, New PW, Ahmad N, Haig AJ. Spinal cord injury management and rehabilitation: highlights and shortcomings from the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.Recent natural disasters have highlighted the lack of planning for rehabilitation and disability management in emergencies. A review of our experience with spinal cord injury (SCI) after the Pakistan earthquake of 2005, plus a review of other literature about SCI after natural disasters, shows that large numbers of people will incur SCIs in such disasters. The epidemiology of SCI after earthquakes has not been well studied and may vary with location, severity of the disaster, available resources, the expertise of the health care providers, and cultural issues. A lack of preparedness means that evacuation protocols, clinician training, dedicated acute management and rehabilitation facilities, specialist equipment, and supplies are not in place. The dearth of rehabilitation medicine specialists in developing regions further complicates the issue, as does the lack of national spinal cord registries. In our 3 makeshift SCI units, however, which are staffed by specialists and residents in rehabilitation medicine, there were no deaths, few complications, and a successful discharge for most patients. Technical concerns include air evacuation, early spinal fixation, aggressive management to optimize bowel and bladder care, and provision of appropriate skin care. Discharge planning requires substantial external support because SCI victims must often return to devastated communities and face changed vocational and social possibilities. Successful rehabilitation of victims of the Pakistan earthquake has important implications. The experience suggests that dedicated SCI centers are essential after a natural disaster. Furthermore, government and aid agency disaster planners are advised to consult with rehabilitation specialists experienced in SCI medicine in planning for the inevitable large number of people who will have disabilities after a natural disaster.     

四川大学华西医院1861例汶川地震住院和死亡伤员伤情与死因分析

目的回顾性分析四川大学华西医院1861例汶川地震住院和死亡伤员伤情与死因，为今后完善和健全地震灾害应急预案机制和建立国家级区域性医疗中心提供决策参考。方法从医院信息处系统收集震后至7月23日止收治地震伤员的相关资料，分析伤员基本情况和医院总体救治情况。资料录入采用EXCEL表格，统计分析采用SPSS 11.5软件。结果截至7月23日，共收治2728例地震伤员，其中急诊伤员872例，住院伤员1856例。住院伤员男性974例，中位年龄43岁；女性882例，中位年龄46岁。伤员入院时间集中在震后2周内（占82．4％），震后第8天住院伤员数达峰值976例；伤员出院时间集中在震后第9-18天（占60．2％）；伤员来源最多的3个地区为德阳市、阿坝州和都江堰市。入院诊断前3位损伤依次为骨折（54．84％）、颅脑伤（含头面部外伤）（9．81％）和胸腹部伤（含脏器伤）（7．54％）。共死亡33例，其中院前死亡5例，急诊死亡1例，住院死亡27例。结论建立我国地震灾害医疗救援应急预案，是今后再遭遇特大灾害时提高医疗救援的应急反应速度、搜救能力，改善现场伤员分拣和外送、转运流程，合理配置与使用医疗资源的重要保证。全面总结华西医院汶川地震医疗救援指挥和救治经验，可为国家建立区域性医疗中心提供决策参考。     

Guidelines for rescue training of the lay public

The fundamental goal of emergency medical response in disaster is to save lives and reduce injury and permanent disability. It has been observed that urgent emergency medical care of seriously injured earthquake casualties trapped under building rubble, cannot be provided unless the victims have been extricated and transported to medical facilities by friends or relatives, or are accessible to field rescue and medical teams. Equally important is the fact that extrication of seriously injured, trapped victims by laypersons is hazardous, unless the following conditions are met: 1) the rescuer has basic knowledge of extrication, and; 2) there is early application of effective life-supporting first-aid (LSFA) and/or advanced trauma life support (ATLS) at the scene. Time is the critical factor in such an effort. In previous studies of death and dying in earthquakes, it was noted that extrication of trapped victims will be attempted by survivors. Therefore, it is suggested that citizens living in regions of high seismic risk and trained in basic search and rescue and in LSFA are the most immediate resource for early response after an earthquake. An accompanying paper addresses the issue of citizen LSFA training. This paper focuses on the basic concepts of search and rescue training for the lay public.     

EMS providers do not accurately note motor-vehicle crash patients with positive serum alcohol concentrations

INTRODUCTION: Alcohol use is associated with many motor-vehicle crashes and may increase the severity of injury. Because alcohol use also may mask injury, prehospital emergency care providers (PHECPs) may make inaccurate assessments. To assess and triage crash victims accurately, PHECPs must identify recent alcohol use. STUDY OBJECTIVE: This study examines the accuracy of PHECPs in identifying motor-vehicle crash victims who had positive serum alcohol concentrations. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. POPULATION: Included in the study were motor-vehicle crash victims more than 17 years of age who were conveyed directly to a university medical center emergency department by ground ambulance (n = 372). TIME PERIOD: 15 July 1990 to 15 July 1991. METHODS: Data sources included ambulance report forms and hospital records. Variables that were abstracted included the Revised Trauma Score (RTS), the PHECPs' impression of alcohol use, and serum alcohol concentrations. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive-value positive, predictive-value negative, and 0.95 confidence intervals (0.95 CI) were calculated for the PHECPs' ability to identify patients with a serum alcohol concentration > 0. The relationship between the RTS and the impressions of alcohol use was analyzed with chi-square testing: a p-value of < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. CONCLUSION: This study suggests that PHECPs cannot accurately identify crash victims with positive serum alcohol concentrations. Selection bias and retrospective design are significant limitations of this study. Future studies should develop and evaluate methods to improve PHECPs' accuracy in assessing alcohol use in motor-vehicle crash victims.     

143例玉树地震藏族伤员临床特点和救治分析

目的总结玉树地震藏族伤员的临床特点和救治经验,为健全地震灾害应急预案机制提供决策参考。方法回顾性分析绵阳地震救援队2010年4月16～22日收治的143例玉树地震藏族伤员情况,根据伤员登记表,调查伤员性别、年龄、致伤方式、救援地点、救援时间、主诉、初步诊断、现场处置、转运以及心理危机干预等。结果收治的143例玉树地震藏族伤员中,男74例,女69例,软组织损伤74例,骨折伤员67例(开放性骨折4例,闭合性骨折63例),关节脱位5例,神经损伤3例;采用藏汉疗法结合外固定治疗62例,急诊手术5例,拒绝外科清创缝合6例,无死亡病例。对所有伤员均进行了3～11次心理干预治疗。在伤员转运方面,建议转出54例,实际转出48例,6例失访或拒绝,继续在原地治疗。结论玉树地震藏族伤员的临床特点明显。民族地区灾害医疗救治要适合灾区特点,个体化救治,及早心理干预,是提高非汉语言地震医疗救援整体水平的重要措施。     

Emergency medical services in the reconstruction phase following a major earthquake: a case study of the 1988 Armenia earthquake

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To use the clinical activities of an ambulance service as a tool to assess the residual and unmet medical needs of a city in the aftermath of a major earthquake and to apply that assessment to the development of a training curriculum for the prehospital personnel. METHODS: The researchers conducted structured interviews with health care workers at all levels of the emergency health care delivery system in Gyumrii, Armenia, and carried out a retrospective frequency analysis of 29,010 ambulance runs for an 11-month period from February through December 1992. Runs first were assigned into the broad categories of: 1) Adult Medical; 2) Pediatric Medical; or 3) Trauma, and then, according to diagnosis. The runs then were classified further as: 1) Primary Care; 2) Basic Life Support (BLS); or 3) Advanced Life Support (ALS). RESULTS: Adult Medical calls represented 24,684 (85%), Pediatric Medical calls 459 (1.6%), and Trauma calls 3,867 (13%). Only 12% of all ambulance calls resulted in transport to a medical facility, although this percentage was higher in children. Thirty percent of Adult Medical patients were diagnosed by the emergency medical providers as having exclusively a psychiatric problem. CONCLUSION: In the late aftermath of a devastating earthquake, the ambulance service in Gyumrii, Armenia has been delivering a substantial proportion of non-emergency, primary care services. They have adopted this unconventional role to compensate for the deficit in health care facilities and personnel created by the disaster. The training program that the investigators developed reflected the actual work activities of the prehospital personnel demonstrated in their assessment.     

Post-disaster malaria in Costa Rica

INTRODUCTION: In recent years, controversy has surrounded the issue of whether infectious disease should be considered a serious potential consequence of natural disasters. This article contributes to this debate with evidence of a significant outbreak of malaria in Costa Rica's Atlantic region after the 1991 earthquake and subsequent floods. METHODS: This study is an epidemiologic investigation of the incidence of malaria for the periods of 22 months before the April 1991 Limón earthquake and for 13 months afterward. Data were obtained from the Costa Rican Ministry of Health's malaria control program. RESULTS: Some of the cantons in the region experienced increases in the incidence of malaria as high as 1,600% and 4,700% above the average monthly rate for the preearthquake period (p < or = 0.01). Causal mechanisms are postulated as relating to changes in human behavior (increased exposure to mosquitoes while sleeping outside, and a temporary pause in malaria control activities), changes in the habitat that were beneficial to mosquito breeding (landslide deforestation, river damming, and rerouting), and the floods of August 1991. CONCLUSIONS: It is recommended that there be enhanced awareness of the potential consequences of disaster-wrought environmental changes. Date of Event: 22 April 1991; Type: Earthquake, 7.4 Richter scale; Location: Costa Rica; Number of deaths and casualties: 54 deaths and 505 moderate to severe injuries.     

Epidemiologic assessment of mortality, building collapse pattern, and medical response after the 1992 earthquake in Turkey. Disaster Reanimatology Study Group (DRSG)

BACKGROUND: Post-earthquake engineering and epidemiologic assessments are important for the development of injury prevention strategies. This paper describes mortality and its relationship to building collapse patterns and initial medical responses following the 1992 earthquake in Erzincan, Turkey. METHODS: The study consisted of: 1) background data collection and review; 2) design and implementation of a field survey; and 3) site inspection of building collapse patterns. The survey included: 1) national (n = 11) and local (n = 17) officials; 2) medical and search and rescue (SAR) workers (n = 38); and 3) a geographically stratified random sample of lay survivors (n = 105). The survey instruments were designed to gather information regarding location, injuries, initial actions and prior training of survivors and responders, and the location, injuries, and management of dead and dying victims. A case-control design was constructed to assess the relationship between mortality, location, and building collapse pattern. RESULTS: There was extensive structural damage throughout the region, especially in the city where mid-rise, unreinforced masonry buildings (MUMBs) incorporating a "soft" first floor design (large store windows for commercial use) and one story adobe structures were most vulnerable to collapse. Of 526 people who died in the city, 87% (n = 456) were indoors at the time of the earthquake. Of these, 92% (n = 418) died in MUMBs. Of 54 witnessed deaths, 55% (n = 28) of victims died slowly, the majority of whom (n = 26) were pinned or trapped (p < 0.05). Of 42 MUMB occupants identified through the survey, those who died (n = 25) were more likely to have been occupying the ground floor when compared with survivors (n = 28) (p < 0.01). Official medical and search and rescue responders arrived after most deaths had occurred. Prior first-aid or rescue training of lay, uninjured survivors was associated with a higher likelihood of rescuing and resuscitating others (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: During an earthquake, MUMBs with soft ground floor construction are highly lethal, especially for occupants on the the ground floor, suggesting that this building type is inappropriate for areas of seismic risk. The vulnerability of MUMBs appears due to a lack of lateral force resistance as a result of the use of glass store front windows and the absence of shear walls. The prevalence of this building type in earthquake-prone regions needs to be investigated further. A large portion of victims dying in an earthquake die slowly at the scene of injury. Prior public first-aid and rescue training programs increase participation in rescue efforts in major earthquakes and may improve survival.     

Terrorism in France

France has experienced two waves of major terrorist bombings since 1980. In the first wave (1985-1986), eight bombings occurred in Paris, killing 13 and injuring 281. In the second wave (1995-1996), six bombings occurred in Paris and Lyon, killing 10 and injuring 262. Based on lessons learned during these events, France has developed and improved a sophisticated national system for prehospital emergency response to conventional terrorist attacks based on its national emergency medical services (EMS) system, Service d'Aide Medicale Urgente (SAMU). According to the national plan for the emergency medical response to mass-casualty events (White Plan), the major phases of EMS response are: (1) alert; (2) search and rescue; (3) triage of victims and provision of critical care to first priority victims; (4) regulated dispatch of victims to hospitals; and (5) psychological assistance. Following the 1995 Tokyo subway sarin attack, a national plan for the emergency response to chemical and biological events (PIRATOX) was implemented. In 2002, the Ministries of Health and the Interior collaborated to produce a comprehensive national plan (BIOTOX) for the emergency response to chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear events. Key aspects of BIOTOX are the prehospital provision of specialized advance life support for toxic injuries and the protection of responders in contaminated environments. BIOTOX was successfully used during the 2003 Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in France.     

汶川地震3周2621例急诊伤员分检流程分析

目的探讨汶川地震发生后，根据接诊地震伤员的特点动态调整分检流程的意义与要点，为建立在大型灾害事件中的分检处理流程，及时合理配置医疗资源，启动应急预案，提高医疗救援水平提供思路。方法以华西医院在震后不同时段接收地震伤员的诊治信息数据为基本资料，分析不同时段伤员特点，对流程变化进行归纳分析。结果震后3周，华西医院共收治地震伤员2621例，伤员的伤情特点在不同时段有所改变，皮肤软组织伤和肢体骨折占总就诊量的45％，挤压伤占4．3％，气性坏疽5例，无一例院内交叉感染。结论根据急诊人数及病情的变化，急诊流程动态改变和调整有助于伤员早检早治，提高生存率和治愈率，从而提高医疗救援水平及效果。