Monocyte adhesion and changes in endothelial cell number, morphology, and F-actin distribution elicited by low shear stress in vivo.

Left common carotid arteries of New Zealand white rabbits were ligated rostral to origin of the thyroid artery to reduce flow in the carotid upstream of this branch, and the vessels were examined 5 days later. Estimates of mean shear stress in the upstream carotid artery indicated a decrease of 73% (from 12.1 +/- 1.6 dynes/cm2 to 3.26 +/- 0.58 dynes/cm2). The contralateral common carotid artery carried collateral flow and experienced a 170% increase in shear stress (from 11.3 +/- 1.6 dynes/cm2 to 30.5 +/- 4.6 dynes/cm2). There was an adaptive reduction in the diameter in the left common carotid artery (low shear) from 2.07 +/- 0.06 mm to 1.75 +/- 0.12 mm, but the diameter of the right carotid was unchanged. Fluorescence microscopy and scanning electron microscopy of endothelium exposed to low shear revealed attachment of leukocytes (5.02 +/- 1.59 cells/mm2, mean +/- SE) that were identified as monocytes using the monoclonal antibody HAM 56. Laser confocal microscopy demonstrated that they were migrating across the endothelial cell monolayer. Fluorescence microscopy and scanning electron microscopy of left common carotid artery (low shear) also revealed cell morphology suggestive of endothelial cell desquamation. Endothelial cell loss was confirmed by morphometric determination of cell number (1.29 +/- 0.13 x 10(4) cells/mm length in experimental animals versus 1.71 +/- 0.08 x 10(4) cells/mm length in sham-operated animals). This endothelial cell loss may be an adaptation to a narrowing of carotid arteries exposed to low shear, which reduces luminal surface area of the vessel. Staining of F-actin with rhodamine phalloidin showed that endothelial cells exposed to low shear were less elongated and had fewer stress fibers than normal cells. By contrast, increasing shear stress by two- to threefold caused an increase in the number of stress fibers and a reduction in peripheral actin staining. Distal carotid ligation provided a consistent and well-defined in vivo technique for manipulating shear stresses imposed on a large population of endothelial cells.     

Subnormal shear stress-induced intimal thickening requires medial smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration

Arterial intimal thickening is consisted of predominately smooth muscle cells (SMC). The source of these SMCs and mechanisms response for their changes have not been well cleared. Using a model of rabbit common carotid artery (CCA) shear induced intimal thickening, we sought to identify and describe the source of SMCs in intima. The enlarged CCA 28 days after arteriovenous fistula (AVF) creation was subjected to subnormal wall shear stress (WSS) for 1, 3, and 7 days by closure of the AVF. To determine SMC proliferation, BrdU pulse labeling of SMCs was performed. BrdU-labeled SMCs were tracked over time to further confirm SMC migration. In response to subnormal WSS intimal thickening developed progressively. BrdU-labeled SMCs localized in the subendothelial area. When the BrdU-labeled medial SMCs were tracked 1 day after AVF closure, progenies of these BrdU-incorporated SMCs increased by 4.8-fold with 75% of them in the intima. They were 12-fold increased with 83% in the intima 7 days after. En face examination showed an accumulation of SMCs in internal elastic lamina gap after AVF closure, which later migrated into subendothelial area. In situ hybridization revealed increased TGF-beta1 mRNA expression in intimal SMCs. This study demonstrates that the medial SMCs are the predominant cells in subnormal WSS-induced intimal thickening. Early expression of TGF-beta1 may play an important role in the process of intimal thickening.     

Down-regulation of endothelial ephrinB2 expression by laminar shear stress.

The EphB receptors and their ephrinB ligands are involved in vascular assembly and differentiation. In this study, the authors analyzed the regulation of ephrinB2 and EphB4 in response to laminar shear stress in human endothelial cells. In order to simulate different flow conditions in vitro, human endothelial cells were exposed to laminar shear stress (1 to 50 dyn/cm2 for up to 24 h) in a cone-and-plate viscometer. EphrinB2 mRNA expression is down-regulated by arterial, but not by venous, laminar shear stress in a dose-dependent manner in primary cultures of human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) (maximum at 30 dyn/cm2, 24 h: 46% +/- 4%of internal control without shear stress, n = 16, p < .05). The down-regulation of ephrinB2 by arterial shear stress is blocked by the protein kinase C inhibitor RO-31-8220. A similar shear stress-dependent down-regulation of ephrin-B2 can be found in human coronary artery endothelial cells (HCAECs). Chronic application of laminar shear stress does not affect EphB4 expression in venous and arterial endothelial cells. The down-regulation of ephrinB2 in response to laminar shear stress may contribute to the differentiation of endothelial cells into a nonactivated phenotype.     

The endothelium as physiological source of properdin: role of wall shear stress

Properdin is a positive regulator of the alternative pathway of complement activation. It can be released by peripheral blood cells but is not synthesized in the liver and the physiological source of properdin in plasma is unknown. The endothelium is an extra-hepatic source for several complement components and shear stress can modulate their expression. The aim of this study was to analyze shear stress-exposed endothelial cells (EC) as physiological source for plasma properdin.Human umbilical vein EC (HUVEC) and human cardiac microvascular EC (HCMEC) were exposed to shear stress using a cone-and-plate apparatus and properdin expression was analyzed by RT-PCR, Northern, and Western blot. mRNA for properdin is barely detectable in untreated EC but strongly induced by laminar shear stress exposure (6 dyn/cm(2); 24 h). Properdin is induced also at the protein level and is released in the extracellular compartment. Properdin up-regulation requires a shear stress of 2-3 dyn/cm(2), is not transient, and is reversible by restoration of static conditions. Turbulent flow exposure results in two times higher induction of properdin than laminar flow exposure.The ability of endothelial cells exposed to shear stress to synthesize properdin proposes the endothelium as physiological source for plasma properdin and suggests a link between flow conditions and the modulation of the alternative pathway. Furthermore, the stronger properdin induction by turbulent flow may suggest an involvement in the pathology of atherosclerosis.     

Arterial enlargement in response to high flow requires early expression of matrix metalloproteinases to degrade extracellular matrix

This study investigated the effects of high flow and shear stress on the expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) during flow-induced arterial enlargement using a model of arteriovenous fistula (AVF) creation on the carotid artery with the corresponding jugular vein in Japanese white male rabbits. Flow increased 8-fold 7 days after AVF. Endothelial cells (EC) and smooth muscle cells (SMC) proliferated with internal elastic lamina (IEL) degradation in response to high flow and shear stress. Expression of MMP-2 mRNA peaked at 2 days (1700-fold) and maintained high level expression. MMP-9 mRNA gave a 10.8-fold increase within 2 days and decreased later. Their proteins were detected in EC and SMC. Membrane type-1-MMP (MT1-MMP) mRNA increased 121-fold at 3 days and maintained high expression. TGF-beta1 was increased after AVF. Two-peak up-regulation of Egr-1 mRNA was recognized at 1 and 5 days of AVF. These results suggest that high flow and shear stress can mediate EC and SMC to express MMP-2 and MMP-9, which degrade cell basement membranes and IEL to induce arterial enlargement. The disproportional increase in MT1-MMP and TIMP-2 might contribute to MMP-2 activation. Egr-1 and TGF-beta1 might play important roles in this process.     

流体切应力梯度对血管内皮细胞排列和形状的影响

目的研究不同梯度切应力作用下,血管内皮细胞(endothelial cells,ECs)排列和形状变化,旨在了解流体切应力梯度对ECs形态的影响,为进一步探讨其功能变化提供实验基础。方法建立可对体外培养ECs施加梯度切应力的流动腔装置,并应用该装置对人脐静脉ECs加载了大小在15dyn/cm2～6.6dyn/cm2(1dyn=10-5N)范围、梯度分别为1.5dyn/cm2和3dyn/cm2的切应力,加载时间均为6h。比较这两种不同切应力梯度对ECs的细胞方向角、细胞宽长比和细胞形态指数的影响。结果在不同切应力梯度作用下,ECs的细胞方向角分布散乱,细胞无排列规律。与3dyn/cm2相比,1.5dyn/cm2切应力梯度下ECs的宽长比和细胞形态指数明显减少,趋向于拉伸状态。结论在不同切应力梯度作用下,ECs均排列紊乱,无规律可循。然而,在相对较小的切应力梯度作用下,细胞容易被拉伸,细胞形状趋向于伸长,而较大切应力梯度作用下,细胞形状则趋向于圆形。     

The effect of gradually graded shear stress on the morphological integrity of a huvec-seeded compliant small-diameter vascular graft

The premature endothelialization of tissue-engineered grafts had often induced cellular detachment at an early period of implantation in arterial circulation, resulting in occlusion at an early period of implantation. This study was aimed to determine whether gradually increased shear stress applied ex vivo improves cell retention and tissue morphological integrity including cell shape and alignment, actin fiber alignment and expression of vascular endothelial (VE) cadherin. Tissue-engineered grafts used for this study were human umbilical vein endothelial cell (HUVEC)-seeded compliant small-diameter grafts made of poly(L-lactide-co-epsilon-caprolactone) fiber meshes fabricated by electrospinning. The shear stresses applied to grafts, generated using a custom-designed mock circulatory apparatus, were 3.2, 8.7 and 19.6 dyn/cm(2). The grafts completely monolayered prior to shear stress exposure exhibited a polygonal cobblestone morphology with randomly distributed actin fibers and VE cadherin at the continuous peripheral region of adjacent cells. The 24-h-loading of high shear stresses (8.7 and 19.6 dyn/cm(2)) equivalent to those of the arterial circulatory system resulted in severe cellular damage resulting in the complete loss of cells. However, a gradually increased graded exposure from a low (3.2 dyn/cm(2)) to a high shear stress (19.6 dyn/cm(2)) resulted in a markedly reduced cell detachment, a highly elongated cell shape, and orientation or alignment of both cells and actin fibers, which were parallel to the direction of flow. Although VE-cadherin expression was not detected yet, a higher degree of tissue integrity was achieved, which may greatly improve the performance particularly at an early period of implantation.     

Endothelial barrier function under laminar fluid shear stress

It has been suggested that increasing levels of shear stress could modify endothelial permeability. This might be critical in venous grafting and in the pathogenesis of certain vascular diseases. We present a novel setup based on impedance spectroscopy that allows online investigation of the transendothelial electrical resistance (TER) under pure laminar shear stress. Shear stress-induced change in TER was associated with changes in cell motility and cell shape as a function of time (morphodynamics) and accompanied by a reorganization of catenins that regulate endothelial adherens junctions. Confluent cultures of porcine pulmonary trunk endothelial cells typically displayed a TER between 6 and 15 ohms cm2 under both resting conditions and low shear stress levels (0.5 dyn/cm2). Raising shear stress to the range of 2 to 50 dyn/cm2 caused a transient 2% to 15% increase in TER within 15 minutes that was accompanied by a reduction in cell motility. Subsequently, TER slowly decreased to a minimum of 20% below the starting value. During this period, acceleration of shape change occurred. In the ensuing period, TER values recovered, reaching control levels within hours and associated with an entire deceleration of shape change. A heterogeneous distribution of alpha-, beta-, and gamma-catenin, main components of the endothelial adherens type junctions, was also observed, indicating a differentiated regulation of shear stress-induced junction rearrangement. Additionally, catenins were partly colocalized with beta-actin at the plasma membrane, indicating migration activity of these subcellular parts. Shear stress, even at peak levels of 50 dyn/cm2, did not cause intercellular gap formation. These data show that endothelial monolayers exposed to increased levels of laminar shear stress respond with a shear stress-dependent regulation of permeability and a reorganization of junction-associated proteins, whereas monolayer integrity remains unaffected.     

低切应力对体外培养动脉壁细胞PDGF表达的影响

为了研究切应力对完整血管的生物学作用 ,探讨应力引起血管重建过程中生长因子的变化 ,用血管应力培养系统体外培养猪颈总动脉 ,通过免疫组织化学、抗体夹心法酶联免疫吸附测定实验 (EL ISA)和计算机图像分析等方法 ,观察了低切应力作用下动脉壁细胞 PDGF- A、PDGF- B表达变化情况。结果显示 ,低切应力作用下体外培养动脉 EC中 PDGF- B及 VSMC中 PDGF- A的合成与分泌皆增加。PDGF表达上升 ,促进了 VSMC表型转换与增殖。在低切应力引起的血管重建中 ,这一机制可能起着重要作用。     

Hemodynamic forces regulate mural macrophage infiltration in experimental aortic aneurysms

Blood flow (BF) and wall shear stress (WSS) influence reactive oxygen species production and oxidative stress in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) disease. To gain further insight into the mechanisms of hemodynamic influences on AAA inflammation, we examined aneurysm macrophage density, chemotaxis and survival under varying aortic flow conditions. Rat AAAs were created via porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE) infusion. In selected cohorts, AAA flow was increased via left common femoral arteriovenous fistula (AVF) creation (HF-AAA) or decreased by left common iliac ligation (LF-AAA). WSS was highest in HF-AAA (10.4 +/- 2.3 dyn/cm(2) vs. 2.4 +/- 0.4 and 0.5 +/- 0.2 for NF- and LF-AAA, respectively, P < 0.001) 7 days after PPE infusion, with reduced medial macrophage density and increased apoptosis. Adventitial macrophage density was not significantly influenced by flow. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) gene expression correlated with observed macrophage densities in the media and adventitia. Luminal flow conditions regulate AAA inflammation in part via influences on medial macrophage density. Hemodynamic forces may modulate AAA inflammation and diameter enlargement via direct regulation of intimal macrophage adhesion, transmural migration or survival.     

Micro Sensors: Linking Real-Time Oscillatory Shear Stress with Vascular Inflammatory Responses

The important interplay between blood circulation and vascular cell behavior warrants the development of highly sensitive but small sensing systems. The emerging micro electro mechanical systems (MEMS) technology, thus, provides the high spatiotemporal resolution to link biomechanical forces on the microscale with large-scale physiology. We fabricated MEMS sensors, comparable to the endothelial cells (ECs) in size, to link real-time shear stress with monocyte/EC interactions in an oscillatory flow environment, simulating the moving and unsteady separation point at arterial bifurcations. In response to oscillatory shear stress (tau) at +/- 2.6 dyn/cm2, time-averaged shear stress (tauave) = 0 at 0.5 Hz, individual monocytes displayed unique to-and-fro trajectories, undergoing rolling, binding, and dissociation with other monocyte, followed by solid adhesion on EC. Incorporating with cell-tracking velocimetry, we visualized that these real-time events occurred over a dynamic range of oscillating shear stress between +/- 2.6 dyn/cm2 and Reynolds number between 0 and 22.2 in the presence of activated adhesion molecule and chemokine mRNA expression.     

Effects of shear stress on endothelial cells: go with the flow

Haemodynamic forces influence the functional properties of vascular endothelium. Endothelial cells (ECs) have a variety of receptors, which sense flow and transmit mechanical signals through mechanosensitive signalling pathways to recipient molecules that lead to phenotypic and functional changes. Arterial architecture varies greatly exhibiting bifurcations, branch points and curved regions, which are exposed to various flow patterns. Clinical studies showed that atherosclerotic plaques develop preferentially at arterial branches and curvatures, that is in the regions exposed to disturbed flow and shear stress. In the atheroprone regions, the endothelium has a proinflammatory phenotype associated with low nitric oxide production, reduced barrier function and increased proadhesive, procoagulant and proproliferative properties. Atheroresistant regions are exposed to laminar flow and high shear stress that induce prosurvival antioxidant signals and maintain the quiescent phenotype in ECs. Indeed, various flow patterns contribute to phenotypic and functional heterogeneity of arterial endothelium whose response to proatherogenic stimuli is differentiated. This may explain the preferential development of endothelial dysfunction in arterial sites with disturbed flow.     

The effect of fluid shear stress on ICAM-1 expression of rat brain microvascular endothelial cells.

Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) is an adherence molecule that is an important factor in many pathophysiological processes such as atherosclerosis, thrombosis and inflammation. It is secretion of endothelial cells by a variety of biochemical stimulations. But hemodynamic forces can also induce various functional changes in vascular endothelium. Some researches have proved that shear stress can modulate the expression of ICAM-1. But most of them examine the regulation of expression of ICAM-1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. There is no detail on the effect of shear stress (SS) on ICAM-1 expression of microvascular endothelial cells (RBMECs). In this experiment, we use cultured rat brain microvascular endothelial cells (RBMECs). By using the parallel plate flow chamber method, we give two magnitudes of lamminar shear stresses (0.2 dyn/cm2, 0.4 dyn/cm2) for different perieods of time on the slides of cells. Immunostaining method and image analysis shows a specific upregulation in ICAM-1 expression on RBMECs, which is different from endothelial cells of other species or vascular beds. Expression of ICAM-1 is increased 0.5h after the onset of SS, and reached its highest level 4h after onset of SS, then declines after that. The effect is time-dependent, not force magnitude-dependent. Endothelial cell surface expression of ICAM-1 in the supernatants of RBMECs exposed to SS was not modified excluding the possibility that RBMECs exposed to SS synthesize factors that upregulate ICAM-1. The experiment data are relevant to the current understanding of basic mechanisms that explain the signal transudation pathway occurring inside the endothelial cells under the effect of SS.     

切应力和TNF-α调节人血管内皮细胞质膜微囊蛋白的表达

目的：质膜微囊蛋白（caveolin）是细胞质膜微囊的主要结构蛋白，研究显示caveolin可与多种信号分子相互作用，在细胞信号转导和多种疾病的发生中有重要意义。本研究观察切应力和肿瘤坏死因子α（TNF-α）对人主动脉内皮细胞（HAECs）caveolin-1表达的调节作用。 方法： 使用培养的3-5代HAECs细胞，采用平行板流动室，产生切应力为1.0 Pa的稳定流动环境。内皮细胞经切应力和TNF-α刺激不同时间后，采用Western blot和RT-PCR测定caveolin-1蛋白和mRNA表达的变化。 结果： 1.0 Pa切应力作用24 h可明显引起caveolin-1蛋白和mRNA表达的下调，尤其是mRNA表达的下调（P<0.05）。1 h和4 h的切应力刺激可以引起caveolin-1 mRNA表达的明显下调（P<0.05），但4 h时caveolin-1蛋白表达尚没有明显下降。24 h TNF-α刺激可以引起caveolin-1蛋白和mRNA表达的明显下调（P<0.05）。 结论： 切应力和TNF-α可以抑制caveolin-1 mRNA和蛋白表达，这种改变可能会影响动脉粥样硬化斑块的形成。     

The control of endothelial cell adhesion and migration by shear stress and matrix-substrate anchorage

Endothelial cells constitute the natural inner lining of blood vessels and possess anti-thrombogenic properties. This characteristic is frequently used by seeding endothelial cells on vascular prostheses. As the type of anchorage of adhesion ligands to materials surfaces is known to determine the mechanical balance of adherent cells, we investigated herein the behaviour of endothelial cells under physiological shear stress conditions. The adhesion ligand fibronectin was anchored to polymer surfaces of four physicochemical characteristics exhibiting covalent and non-covalent attachment as well as high and low hydrophobicity. The in situ analysis combined with cell tracking of shear stress-induced effects on cultured isolated cells and monolayers under venous (0.5 dyn/cm²) and arterial (12 dyn/cm²) shear stress over a time period of 24 h revealed distinct differences in their morphological and migratory features. Most pronounced, unidirectional and bimodal migration patterns of endothelial cells in or against flow direction were found in dependence on the type of substrate-matrix anchorage. Combined by an immunofluorescent analysis of the actin cytoskeleton, cell-cell junctions, cell-matrix adhesions, and matrix reorganization these results revealed a distinct balance of laminar shear stress, cell-cell contacts and substrate-matrix anchorage in affecting endothelial cell fate under flow conditions. This analysis underlines the importance of materials surface parameters as well as primary and secondary adhesion ligand anchorage in the context of artificial blood vessels for future therapeutic devices.     

高血压与低切应力对大鼠颈总动脉血管重建的影响

目的研究高血压与低切应力对血管重建的影响及其机制,这对于阐明血管疾病的发病机理以及提供诊断、治疗的一些基本原理都将有重要的理论和实际意义。方法通过腹主动脉缩窄,结扎左颈总动脉的部分分支建立高血压、左颈总动脉低切应力以及高血压伴有低切应力大鼠动物模型。几何形态学方法观测左颈总动脉的壁厚及壁厚/内径比的变化;金属蛋白酶谱法分析MMP-2活性;免疫印迹法检测信号通路分子p-Akt分子以及Rho GDIα的表达变化。结果高血压和低切应力均可诱导颈总动脉MMP-2活性和壁厚及壁厚/内径比显著增加;当高血压伴有低切应力时,两者的协同作用诱导颈总动脉MMP-2活性和壁厚及壁厚/内径比进一步增加,从而促进血管重建。低切应力可诱导颈总动脉p-Akt的表达水平,且与低切应力大小相关,切应力低,p-Akt的表达水平高。当高血压伴有低切应力时,两者的协同作用诱导p-Akt的表达水平进一步增加。高血压和低切应力可诱导颈总动脉RhoGDIα表达增加;当高血压伴有低切应力时,两者的协同作用诱导颈总动脉Rho GDIα表达进一步增加。结论高血压与切应力协同作用对血管重建的影响最为显著,Akt和Rho GDIα信号通路参与了高血压与低切应力诱导的血管重建过程。     

剪切力改变后动脉内皮细胞通透性的变化

目的:研究剪切力改变后内皮通透性及其超微结构。方法:饲以普通或高脂肪食的兔腹主动脉狭窄60.7%,高速摄像微粒子示踪技术血流分析,依万斯蓝和苏丹Ⅳ动脉染色,辣根过氧化物酶法电镜观察。结果:距狭窄近侧1mm的动脉前、后壁剪切力分别为74dyn/cm²和317dyn/cm²,为高剪切力区;狭窄远侧3mm前、后壁分别为-18dyn/cm²和-71dyn/cm²,为返流、涡流、湍流和停滞的低剪切力区。狭窄近、远段内皮通透性均增高,在蓝染或苏丹Ⅳ阳性区,狭窄远段内皮细胞连接部完全开放型的百分率(88.5%或88.1%)明显大于近段(22.7%或30%)(P＜0.01),远段标记HRP小胞的密度(2.57±1.14)×10¹²/m²或(2.72±1.81)×10¹²/m²明显高于近段(1.24±1.06)×10¹²/m²或(1.90±1.47)×10¹²/m² (P＜0.01)。结论:低剪切力更易导致内皮细胞对大分子物质通透性增高和动脉硬化形成。     

Fibronectin and F-actin redistribution in cultured endothelial cells exposed to shear stress

Cultured endothelial cells exposed to shear stresses in vitro undergo a reorganization of their F-actin-containing cytoskeletons which culminates in realignment with flow direction. Since a close transmembrane association exists between actin microfilaments and extracellular fibronectin, this study was undertaken to examine whether the actin reorganization induced by shear stress is accompanied by perturbations in the underlying fibronectin matrix. In a closed circulatory loop, bovine endothelial monolayers were exposed to steady, laminar flows corresponding to shear stress levels of 6 and 26 dynes/cm2 for 2, 6, 12, and 24 hours. The co-distribution of fibronectin and F-actin was determined in specimens which were double-labeled with antiserum to fibronectin and rhodamine phalloidin, respectively. Under the influence of shear stress, cells underwent coordinate shape changes resulting in varying degrees of alignment with flow direction. Reorientation at these shear stress levels was dependent on both the time of exposure and the magnitude of shear stress and was accompanied by a reorganization in cellular fibronectin and F-actin. In controls (no flow) correspondence between the two proteins was limited to similarly arranged, radial foci of fibronectin and F-actin filaments at the basal cell surfaces. In flow specimens, coincidence was detected only between occasional fibronectin fibrils and F-actin stress fibers. As a consequence of shear stress, fibronectin became more uniformly distributed beneath monolayers and frequently was organized into bands of densely packed fibrils. Despite this extensive reorganization, rearrangement of fibronectin did not result in the formation of identical, linear structures with F-.     

Intracellular pH changes in human aortic smooth muscle cells in response to fluid shear stress.

The smooth muscle cell (SMC) layers of human arteries may be exposed to blood flow after endothelium denudation, for example, following balloon angioplasty treatment. These SMCs are also constantly subjected to pressure driven transmural fluid flow. Flow-induced shear stress can alter SMC growth and metabolism. Signal transduction mechanisms involved in these flow effects on SMCs are still poorly understood. In this work, the hypothesis that shear stress alters the intracellular pH (pHi) of SMC is examined. When exposed to venous and arterial levels of shear stress, human aortic smooth muscle cells (hASMC) undergo alkalinization. The alkalinization plateau persisted even after 20 min of cell exposure to flow. Addition of amiloride (10 micromoles) or its 5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl) analog (EIPA, 10 micromoles), both Na+/H+ exchanger inhibitors, attenuated intracellular alkalinization, suggesting the involvement of the Na+/H+ exchanger in this response. The same concentrations of these inhibitors did not show an effect on pHi of hASMCs in static culture. 4-Acetamido-4'-isothio-cyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (SITS, 1 mM), a Cl-/HCO3- exchange inhibitor, affected the pHi of hASMCs both in static and flow conditions. Our results suggest that flow may perturb the Na+/H+ exchanger leading to an alkalinization of hASMCs, a different response from the flow-induced acidification seen with endothelial cells at the same levels of shear stress. Understanding the flow-induced signal transduction pathways in the vascular cells is of great importance in the tissue engineering of vascular grafts. In the case of SMCs, the involvement of pHi changes in nitric oxide production and proliferation regulation highlights further the significance of such studies.