Enhancing appropriate and variable responding in young children with autism spectrum disorder

Objective: The present study utilized lag schedules of reinforcement, in conjunction with training multiple exemplars and provision of prompts, to promote appropriate variability of social skills. Methods: Participants included in three children between the ages of 5 and 7 with ASD. Participants attended a social skills training program twice per week for eight weeks. A multiple probe design across target social skills was used to assess the effects of intervention. Results: Findings indicate that training multiple exemplars alone did not appreciably increase appropriate and variable responding, whereas the addition of lag schedules of reinforcement and prompting to training multiple exemplars resulted in appropriate and variable responding that exceeded baseline levels. Conclusion: Use of lag schedule of reinforcement in conjunction with prompts was more effective than multiple exemplar training in isolation for increasing appropriate variability of social skills.     

An evaluation of the additive effects of lag schedules of reinforcement

Lag schedules of reinforcement represent an increasingly researched strategy for addressing restricted and repetitive social communication of individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although the body of literature suggests that lag schedules of reinforcement are generally effective for this purpose, studies have varied in their utilization of verbal rules describing the contingency. Furthermore, research has yet to evaluate generalized effects of lag schedules of reinforcement to social communication with peers. This study evaluated the implementation of a social skills curriculum, modified to incorporate lag schedules of reinforcement, on novel responding of participants with ASD. Participants attended training twice per week, with probes of novel responding collected with both researchers and non-participating peers. Results indicate that social skills training that incorporated lag schedules of reinforcement generally resulted in larger increases in novel responding than social skills training alone. Furthermore, effects of training generalized to novel responding to non-participant peers.     

Correlating derived relational responding with linguistic and cognitive ability in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

Many children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) show substantial deficits in linguistic and cognitive ability. When considered from the perspective of Relational Frame Theory (RFT), it is possible that these deficits are rooted in a deficiency in the capacity to derive relations. One key aim of the Training and Assessment of Relational Precursors and Abilities (TARPA) protocol is to assess derived relational responding. A number of previous studies have shown correlations between TARPA performance and linguistic ability in children with ASD. The current study has extended this work by (i) showing correlations between TARPA performance and cognitive as well as linguistic ability in a larger (n = 35) sample of children with ASD; (ii) providing evidence of TARPA test–retest reliability; (iii) providing additional evidence indicating differences in visual and auditory performance in children with ASD.     

Neural mechanisms of negative reinforcement in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders

Background

Previous research has found accumulating evidence for atypical reward processing in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), particularly in the context of social rewards. Yet, this line of research has focused largely on positive social reinforcement, while little is known about the processing of negative reinforcement in individuals with ASD.

Methods

The present study examined neural responses to social negative reinforcement (a face displaying negative affect) and non-social negative reinforcement (monetary loss) in children with ASD relative to typically developing children, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).

Results

We found that children with ASD demonstrated hypoactivation of the right caudate nucleus while anticipating non-social negative reinforcement and hypoactivation of a network of frontostriatal regions (including the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, and putamen) while anticipating social negative reinforcement. In addition, activation of the right caudate nucleus during non-social negative reinforcement was associated with individual differences in social motivation.

Conclusions

These results suggest that atypical responding to negative reinforcement in children with ASD may contribute to social motivational deficits in this population.     

Inter-trial coherence of medial frontal theta oscillations linked to differential feedback processing in youth and young adults with autism

BackgroundImpairment in prediction and appreciation for choice outcomes could contribute to several core symptoms of ASD. We examined electroencephalography (EEG) oscillations in 27 youth and young adults diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 22 IQ-matched neurotypical controls while they performed a chance-based reward prediction task.MethodWe re-analyzed our previously published ERP data (Larson et al., 2011) and examined theta band oscillations (4–8 Hz) at frontal midline sites, within a timing window that overlaps with the feedback-related negativity (FRN). We focused on event-related changes after presentation of feedback for reward (WIN) and punitive (LOSE) outcomes, both for spectral power and inter-trial phase coherence.ResultsIn our reward prediction task, for both groups, medial frontal theta power and phase coherence were greater following LOSE compared to WIN feedback. However, compared to controls, inter-trial coherence of medial frontal theta was significantly lower overall (across both feedback types) for individuals with ASD. Our results indicate that while individuals with ASD are sensitive to the valence of reward feedback, comparable to their neurotypical peers, they have reduced synchronization of medial frontal theta activity during feedback processing.ConclusionsThis finding is consistent with previous studies showing neural variability in ASD and suggest that the processes underlying decision-making and reinforcement learning may be atypical and less efficient in ASD.     

Increased intra-subject variability of neural activity during speech production in people with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundCommunication difficulties are a core deficit in many people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The current study evaluated neural activation in participants with ASD and neurotypical (NT) controls during a speech production task.MethodsNeural activities of participants with ASD (N = 15, M = 16.7 years, language abilities ranged from low verbal abilities to verbally fluent) and NT controls (N = 12, M = 17.1 years) was examined using functional magnetic resonance imaging with a sparse-sampling paradigm.ResultsThere were no differences between the ASD and NT groups in average speech activation or inter-subject run-to-run variability in speech activation. Intra-subject run-to-run neural variability was greater in the ASD group and was positively correlated with autism severity in cortical areas associated with speech.ConclusionsThese findings highlight the importance of understanding intra-subject neural variability in participants with ASD.     

Investigating Event Memory in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Effects of a Computer-Mediated Interview

The present study aimed to examine the effects of a novel avatar interviewing aid during memory interviews with children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Thirty children were recruited for our study (Age: M?=?7.60, SD?=?0.68), half with ASD (13 boys; 2 girls) and the other half being neurotypical (13 boys; 2 girls). Children participated in a target event and were subsequently interviewed a week later by either an avatar interviewer or a human. The participants were also asked six misleading questions aimed to examine their suggestibility. Bayesian analysis showed some increase in memory performance for both groups of children interviewed by the avatar interviewer, and this effect exacerbated for children with ASD. These results showed encouraging implications for future applications.     

An examination of response variability in children with autism and the relationship to restricted repetitive behavior subtypes

The current study investigated response variability in children with autism and its relationship to restricted repetitive behaviors, one of the core symptoms of the disorder. The “Penny-Hiding Game” (Baron-Cohen, 1992) was used as a measure of response variability. Variability was compared for children with autism (n = 65) and typically developing children (n = 65) and patterns of response variability were categorized from least variable to most variable for both groups. For the participants with a diagnosis of autism, these patterns were examined relative to their scores on the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R; Bodfish, Symons, & Lewis, 1999). Results showed that children with autism demonstrated significantly lower variability in their responding in the “Penny-Hiding Game” than their typically developing peers. Variability was significantly negatively correlated with total RBS-R scores and with the Stereotypy subscale and the self-injurious behavior subscale, indicating that lower variability in responding was related to higher rates of these types of restricted and repetitive behaviors. No significant correlations were observed between variability and the Compulsion subscale, the Ritualistic/Sameness behaviors subscale or the Restricted Interests subscale.     

Effects of fixed-ratio schedule values on concurrent mands in children with autism

Interventions with children with autism often involve more than one concurrent schedule or reinforcement. Manipulation of one schedule of reinforcement may affect responding on a second. We demonstrated the effect of manipulating the schedule of reinforcement for a single high-rate mand on alternative concurrently available mands with two children with autism. Teachers conducted sessions in the participant's usual teaching environment. When the schedule value for all mands was FR1, a single mand occurred at a high rate while all other mands occurred at low rates for both participants and response variability was low. When the schedule of reinforcement for the high-rate mand increased to FR10 for one participant and to FR25 for the second participant, and all other mands remained on FR1 schedules, the high-rate mand decreased while the combined rate of all other mands increased. There was also some evidence of increased response variability. We discuss the affects of schedule values during concurrent schedules and implications for increasing variability in manding.     

Empathic Responding in Toddlers at Risk for an Autism Spectrum Disorder

Empathy deficits represent an important social impairment in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but little is known about the early development of empathy prior to diagnosis. This study examined empathic responding to parental distress in toddlers at risk for an ASD. Children later diagnosed with an ASD engaged in less empathic responding at 24 and 30 months than children with no later diagnosis. Lower empathic responding was associated with higher autism symptomatology at 30 months. This is the first study to examine empathy deficits in response to parental distress in toddlers prior to ASD diagnosis. Early empathic responding may represent a unique developing social skill that indexes the overall severity of later ASD symptomatology in at-risk children.     

Rhythmic bimanual coordination is impaired in young children with autism spectrum disorder

Impairments in motor coordination are a common behavioral manifestation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We, therefore, used a drumming methodology to examine rhythmic bimanual coordination in children diagnosed with ASD (M = 47.3 months) and age-matched typically developing (TD) children (M = 42.6 months). Both groups were instructed to drum on a pad in two required phases: in-phase (drumsticks striking the pad simultaneously) and anti-phase (drumsticks striking in alteration). Analysis revealed that TD children were more able than children with ASD to stay in the required phase relationships for both in-phase and anti-phase coordination. Movement variability was higher for children with ASD than TD children. Imitation ability of the ASD group was somewhat related to their performance on the task. We discuss the implications that deficits in bimanual (intra-personal) coordination may have for social and interpersonal coordination in children with ASD.     

Brief Report: Seeing the Man in the Moon: Do Children with Autism Perceive Pareidolic Faces? A Pilot Study

Faces are one of the most socially significant visual stimuli encountered in the environment, whereas pareidolias are illusions of faces arising from ambiguous stimuli in the environment. Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterised by deficits in response to social stimuli. We found that children with ASD (n?=?60) identify significantly fewer pareidolic faces in a sequence of ambiguous stimuli than typically developing peers. The two groups did not differ in the number of objects identified, indicating that the children with ASD had a specific lack of attention to faces. Pareidolia have considerable potential as naturalistic and easy-to-create materials for the investigation of spontaneous attention to social stimuli in children with ASD.     

Metabolism-Associated Markers and Childhood Autism Rating Scales (CARS) as a Measure of Autism Severity

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neuro-behavioral syndrome with a broad spectrum of different mechanisms and etiologies that are caused by abnormal brain development. To date, no highly reliable and effective diagnostic biomarker to assess ASD is available so far. The present study investigated the predictivity potential of some suggested markers in ASD diagnosis focusing onto the relative ratios of several plasma biomarkers of electron transport chain function, and mitochondrial metabolism in 41 patients with ASD evaluated for behavior deficits measured using Childhood Autism Rating Scales (CARS). The control matched for further 41 healthy subjects. The relation of these relative ratios to ASD severity was also examined, as well as their ability to distinguish ASD children from neurotypical children. All predictive ratios were found to be markedly altered and correlated in ASD patients. However, no ratio was connected with autism severity. Interestingly, MRCC-I/caspase-7, GSH/GST, and MRCC-I/COQ10 were the most distinctive relative ratios between neurotypical controls and ASD patients and may thereby be useful biomarkers for early diagnosis of ASD. Overall, this investigation proves that relative ratios of numerous mitochondrial biomarkers might be predictive and efficient to differentiate between neurotypical children and ASD.     

Brief Report: Accuracy and Response Time for the Recognition of Facial Emotions in a Large Sample of Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders

The empirical literature has presented inconsistent evidence for deficits in the recognition of basic emotion expressions in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD), which may be due to the focus on research with relatively small sample sizes. Additionally, it is proposed that although children with ASD may correctly identify emotion expression they rely on more deliberate, more time-consuming strategies in order to accurately recognize emotion expressions when compared to typically developing children. In the current study, we examine both emotion recognition accuracy and response time in a large sample of children, and explore the moderating influence of verbal ability on these findings. The sample consisted of 86 children with ASD (M _age = 10.65) and 114 typically developing children (M _age = 10.32) between 7 and 13 years of age. All children completed a pre-test (emotion word–word matching), and test phase consisting of basic emotion recognition, whereby they were required to match a target emotion expression to the correct emotion word; accuracy and response time were recorded. Verbal IQ was controlled for in the analyses. We found no evidence of a systematic deficit in emotion recognition accuracy or response time for children with ASD, controlling for verbal ability. However, when controlling for children’s accuracy in word–word matching, children with ASD had significantly lower emotion recognition accuracy when compared to typically developing children. The findings suggest that the social impairments observed in children with ASD are not the result of marked deficits in basic emotion recognition accuracy or longer response times. However, children with ASD may be relying on other perceptual skills (such as advanced word–word matching) to complete emotion recognition tasks at a similar level as typically developing children.     

Assessment of joint attention in school-age children and adolescents

Joint attention (JA), the ability to share attention to an object or event with another person, is one of the earliest identified deficits in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and directly influences language and social development. There are several effective assessments of JA for young children (e.g., Mundy et al., 2003), but none are appropriate for school-age or adolescence. We developed a measure of response to JA and assessed individuals with ASD (n = 18) and typical development (n = 24), ages 7 to 17. Six naturalistic prompts were interleaved throughout a testing session. Discriminative validity was high: there was a broad range for both groups, though scores were lower for children with ASD. Scores in the ASD group were associated with receptive language, symptomatology, and theory of mind. Reliability across examiners was high (κ = .875). This measure, which requires no special equipment and minimal training, was useful in capturing JA skills in older individuals with and without ASD. Further, scores were associated with theoretically related skills, indicating high external validity. Given the powerful developmental sequelae and numerous interventions for JA, this measure offers a longitudinal assessment opportunity.     

Recognition of Emotions from Situational Contexts and the Impact of a Mind Reading Intervention in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

The present research examined recognition of basic (happy, fear, sad) and self-conscious (pride, embarrassment, guilt) emotions from situational contexts in children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and neurotypical children (Study 1). Results showed that children with ASD were less accurate in recognizing fear, embarrassment, and guilt situations than neurotypical children. Additionally, the research explored whether recognition of these emotions from situational contexts could be improved in children with ASD after a 4-week computerized emotion intervention (Study 2). Following the intervention, children showed better recognition of embarrassment and guilt, but no improvement in recognizing fear. In children with ASD, significant negative relations were found between ASD symptomatology and recognition of guilt (Study 1), although ASD symptomatology did not impact the intervention’s efficacy (Study 2). Additional explanations for these findings are provided.

     

Refractive Status and Amblyopia Risk Factors in Chinese Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Amblyopia risk factors in children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are usually hard to detect in early childhood due to poor cooperation and has not been reported in the Chinese population. We screened 168 Chinese children with ASD, aged between 3 and 8 years, and 264 age-matched neurotypical children with Spot photoscreener and basic ophthalmologic examinations. Children with ASD were found to have normal refractive status but significantly higher incidence of strabismus (16.1%), compared with control children (1.5%) (p?<?0.01). Most of the cases of strabismus found in children with ASD were classified as esodeviation. Strabismus in children with ASD should be considered more seriously as an amblyopia risk factor by ophthalmologists and other healthcare professionals.     

Differential monocyte responses to TLR ligands in children with autism spectrum disorders

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are characterized by impairment in social interactions, communication deficits, and restricted repetitive interests and behaviors. Recent evidence has suggested that impairments of innate immunity may play an important role in ASD. To test this hypothesis, we isolated peripheral blood monocytes from 17 children with ASD and 16 age-matched typically developing (TD) controls and stimulated these cell cultures in vitro with distinct toll-like receptors (TLR) ligands: TLR 2 (lipoteichoic acid; LTA), TLR 3 (poly I:C), TLR 4 (lipopolysaccharide; LPS), TLR 5 (flagellin), and TLR 9 (CpG-B). Supernatants were harvested from the cell cultures and pro-inflammatory cytokine responses for IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, TNFα, MCP-1, and GM-CSF were determined by multiplex Luminex analysis. After in vitro challenge with TLR ligands, differential cytokine responses were observed in monocyte cultures from children with ASD compared with TD control children. In particular, there was a marked increase in pro-inflammatory IL-1β, IL-6, and TNFα responses following TLR 2, and IL-1β response following TLR 4 stimulation in monocyte cultures from children with ASD (p < 0.04). Conversely, following TLR 9 stimulation there was a decrease in IL-1β, IL-6, GM-CSF, and TNFα responses in monocyte cell cultures from children with ASD compared with controls (p < 0.05). These data indicate that, monocyte cultures from children with ASD are more responsive to signaling via select TLRs. As monocytes are key regulators of the immune response, dysfunction in the response of these cells could result in long-term immune alterations in children with ASD that may lead to the development of adverse neuroimmune interactions and could play a role in the pathophysiology observed in ASD.