Chronic pancreatitis: A surgical disease? Role of the Frey procedure

Although medical treatment and endoscopic interven-tions are primarily offered to patients with chronic pancreatitis, approximately 40% to 75% will ultimately require surgery during the course of their disease. Al-though pancreaticoduodenectomy has been considered the standard surgical procedure because of its favorable results on pain control, its high postoperative complica-tion and pancreatic exocrine or/and endocrine dysfunc-tion rates have led to a growing enthusiasm for duodenal preserving pancreatic head resection. The aim of this review is to better understand the rationale underlying of the Frey procedure in chronic pancreatitis and to ana-lyze its outcome. Because of its hybrid nature, combin-ing both resection and drainage, the Frey procedure has been conceptualized based on the pathophysiology of chronic pancreatitis. The short and long-term outcome, especially pain relief and quality of life, are better after the Frey procedure than after any other surgical proce-dure performed for chronic pancreatitis.     

Paraduodenal pancreatitis as an uncommon cause of gastric outlet obstruction: A case report and review of the literature

IntroductionParaduodenal pancreatitis (PP) is an under-recognized form of focal chronic or recurrent pancreatitis. Since PP presents with non-specific symptoms and shares radiological and histopathological features with other entities, it can be challenging to diagnose.Presentation of case reportHerein, a case of a 64 year-old Caucasian male with PP presenting with recurrent gastric outlet obstruction (GOO) is detailed. Over the course of two years, he underwent multiple balloon dilatations for symptom management. His diagnostic course was complicated by inconclusive and misleading biopsies.ConclusionPP can rarely present as GOO in otherwise asymptomatic patients. A preoperative pathologic diagnosis can be difficult to obtain, and in this case delayed definitive surgical management. The case is discussed in detail, and a concise review the current literature was undertaken.     

Chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is distinguished by structural and functional criteria. Alcohol is the major aetiological factor, but other causes (for example including hereditary pancreatitis) must be considered. Abdominal pain is the usual presenting feature, but chronic pancreatitis is clinically silent in many patients. The pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis is incompletely understood. Diagnosis is usually made on imaging (computed tomography, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound). Complications include exocrine and endocrine insufficiency, obstructive jaundice, duodenal obstruction, left-sided portal hypertension, and the development of pancreatic cancer. Overall management is difficult and depends upon symptoms, morphological characteristics and complications. Treatment options include medical, endoscopic, and surgical strategies; the latter is reserved for patients with complications. Early involvement of a specialist centre in the care of patients with complicated chronic pancreatitis is important and should be encouraged.     

Chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is distinguished by structural and functional criteria. Alcohol is the major aetiological factor, but about 20% of patients have another cause such as hereditary pancreatitis. Abdominal pain is the usual presenting feature, often as recurrent attacks of acute pancreatitis but chronic pancreatitis may be clinically silent. The pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis is incompletely understood. Diagnosis is usually made on imaging (CT, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography, endoscopic ultrasound). Complications include exocrine and endocrine insufficiency, obstructive jaundice, duodenal obstruction, left-sided portal hypertension, and the development of pancreatic cancer. Overall management is difficult and depends upon symptoms, morphological characteristics and complications. Treatment options include medical, endoscopic, and surgical strategies; the latter is reserved for patients with complications. Early involvement of a specialist centre in the care of patients with complicated chronic pancreatitis is important and should be encouraged.     

Chronic pancreatitis

Chronic pancreatitis is distinguished by structural and functional criteria. Alcohol is the major aetiological factor, but about 20% of patients have another cause such as hereditary pancreatitis. Abdominal pain is the usual presenting feature, often as recurrent attacks of acute pancreatitis but chronic pancreatitis may be clinically silent. The pathogenesis of chronic pancreatitis is incompletely understood. Diagnosis is usually made on imaging (CT, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography – MRCP, endoscopic ultrasound). Complications include exocrine and endocrine insufficiency, obstructive jaundice, duodenal obstruction, left-sided portal hypertension, and the development of pancreatic cancer. Overall management is difficult and depends upon symptoms, morphological characteristics and complications. Treatment options include medical, endoscopic, and surgical strategies; the latter is reserved for patients with complications. Early involvement of a specialist centre in the care of patients with complicated chronic pancreatitis is important and should be encouraged.     

Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy for surgical management of isolated duodenal obstruction due to chronic pancreatitis

IntroductionDuodenal obstruction in case of chronic pancreatitis is a very rare occurrence and usually presents with gastric outlet obstruction. These cases sometimes require surgical intervention when conservative treatment fails. Gastrojejunostomy and vagotomy has conventionally been performed for management of these cases.Presentation of caseIn this report, we present two cases of isolated duodenal obstruction due to chronic pancreatitis that were managed with Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy. All the patients had uneventful post-operative recovery and remained symptom free up to two years of follow up.DiscussionThe isolated duodenal obstruction in chronic pancreatitis is very rare occurring due to fibrotic scarring following pancreatic inflammation an irreversible phenomenon requiring drainage procedure. The advantage of performing Roux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy in these cases is that it avoids complications of gastrojejunostomy such as bile reflux and stomal ulcerations.ConclusionRoux-en-Y duodenojejunostomy should be considered as an alternative procedure when duodenal obstruction occurs beyond second part of duodenum.     

Surgical treatment of chronic pancreatitis

Debilitating abdominal or back pain remains the most common indication for surgery in patients with chronic pancreatitis. The surgical approach to chronic pancreatitis should be individualized based on pancreatic and ductal anatomy, pain characteristics, baseline exocrine and endocrine function, and medical co-morbidity. No single approach is ideal for all patients with chronic pancreatitis. Pancreatic ductal drainage with pancreaticojejunostomy targets patients with a dilated pancreatic duct and produces good early postoperative pain relief; however, 30%–50% of patients experience recurrent symptoms at 5 years. Resection for chronic pancreatitis should be considered (1) when the main pancreatic duct is not dilated, (2) when the pancreatic head is enlarged, (3) when there is suspicion of a malignancy, or (4) when previous pancreaticojejunostomy has failed. Re-sectional strategies include pancreaticoduodenectomy, distal pancreatectomy, total pancreatectomy, duodenum-preserving pancreatic head resection (Beger procedure), or local resection of the pancreatic head with longitudinal pancreaticojejunostomy (Frey procedure). Superior results are obtained when the pancreatic head is resected, either completely (pancreaticoduodenectomy) or partially (Beger or Frey procedure). Although pylorus-preserving pancreaticoduodenectomy remains the gold standard resection procedure, there is evidence that newer operations, such as the Beger resection, may be as effective in regard to pain relief and better in respect to nutritional repletion and preservation of endocrine and exocrine function. Received: April 20, 2002 / Accepted: May 13, 2002 Offprint requests to: H.A. Reber     

Problems of pancreatitis

Pancreatitis is not one disease but several and perhaps many. Diagnosis is imperfect in all forms and the usual lack of histologic material has hampered attempts to understand the pathogenesis and possible interrelationships of the different forms of pancreatic inflammation. Acute pancreatitis does not as a rule evolve into chronic pancreatitis, even after multiple recurrences. Recurrent acute attacks can be ended by identifying and treating the factor causing the disease, including recently recognized entities such as accessory papilla stenosis associated with pancreas divisum. Attempts to improve the treatment of severe acute pancreatitis are focussing upon preventing injury to pancreatic cell structures, enhancing endogenous mechanisms for capture and disposal of activated enzymes, and upon early detection and debridement of damaged pancreatic and peripancreatic tissues. Pancreatic duct stricture or obstruction as a consequence of scarring from necrotizing pancreatitis may produce recurrent symptoms, now designated as obstructive pancreatitis. Obstructive pancreatitis has its own unique histologic characteristics and is appropriately treated by resection of the blocked segment of pancreas when the point of obstruction is distal to the papilla. Chronic pancreatitis differs from acute or obstructive pancreatitis in that it is difficult or impossible to halt its progression. The role of intraductal protein precipitates, whether of enzymes or perhaps of other unique pancreatic secretory proteins, in the pathogenesis of the disease is being evaluated. The goal of surgical treatment is not to cure, but to reduce pain, overcome associated obstruction of the bile duct or duodenum, and to treat pancreatic duct disruptions including pseudocysts and internal pancreatic fistulas. Because continuing deterioration of pancreatic function is to be expected in chronic pancreatitis, maximum conservation of pancreatic tissue by avoiding resectional procedures is advisable. This report is the gist of a paper read by A. L. W. at the 86th Annual Meeting of the Japanese Surgical Society, Tokyo, Japan, 1986     

慢性胰腺炎的手术适应证和术式选择

目的提高慢性胰腺炎的外科治疗效果. 方法回顾性总结分析55例慢性胰腺炎外科治疗资料.发病因素:嗜酒5年以上、胆系结石、急性胰腺炎病史分别占38.2%,29.1%和20.0%.主要临床表现:慢性腹痛、梗阻性黄疸、体重减轻、消化不良、糖尿病分别为98.2%,38.2%,34.5%,20.0%和10.9%.全组均因慢性腹痛或伴有胰管和(/或)胆管梗阻、结石、胰腺钙化、肿块、假性囊肿等行外科治疗,共采用了10种术式. 结果无手术死亡和严重并发症.术后效果良好43例(78.2%),症状减轻好转10例(18.2%),无效2例(3.6%). 结论慢性胰腺炎长期慢性腹痛并胰胆管梗阻、结石、肿块、假性囊肿适于外科治疗,应根据病变类型和特点选择不同的术式.胰管梗阻扩张、结石或假性囊肿宜行胰管或囊肿空肠吻合,胰头肿块并胆、胰管梗阻可行胰头十二指肠切除或胆胰管空肠吻合术.     

胰管梗阻的诊断和治疗

提出胰管梗阻所致胰高压在胆胰疾病中造成病人剧烈腹痛和消化道功能紊乱的作用以及手术缓解胰高压的重要性。方法：２７例诊断为胰管梗阻的患者中,１１例为慢性胰腺炎,１６例为晚期胰腺癌或壶腹周围癌。其中慢性胰腺炎有６例为胰管多发性狭窄伴扩张,手术将胰管纵行劈开并与空肠行大口侧侧吻合,另５例仅出口狭窄者行胰管空肠侧端吻合;１６例晚期肿瘤患者,仅５例行胰管空肠内引流术。结果：１１例慢性胰腺炎内引流手术后经长期随访除一例偶有上腹轻度疼痛外,其余１０例症状均明显好转。其余消化道症状亦皆明显好转。１６例晚期肿瘤所致的胰管梗阻病人,５例行胰管空肠吻合术,术后病人疼痛均明显好转。结论：胰管阻塞可引起胰高压,后者可能是造成慢性疼痛和消化不良的重要原因,在胆胰手术过程中应充分地认识其重要性,以选择适当的术式。     

The challenge of therapy for pancreatitis-related common bile duct stricture

: Opinions regarding the appropriate clinical management of pancreatitis-related common bile duct (CBD) stricture vary considerably. : Nineteen patients with chronic pancreatitis and proven stricture of their CBD were included in this study. Their mean duct diameter was 16 mm, bilirubin was 8.4 mg/dL, and alkaline phosphatase was 784 mlU/mL. : Five patients initially treated with endoscopic biliary stent placement are doing well at a mean follow-up of 7 months with only 1 patient requiring a biliary-enteric bypass. Four patients underwent a pancreaticoduodenectomy and the other 10 patients underwent a biliary-enteric bypass. Mean bilirubin and alkaline phosphatase at 13 months after therapy were 0.9 mg/dL and 144 mlU/mL. : An endoscopically placed biliary stent will relieve obstruction due to the stricture for several months and allow the inflammatory process to follow its natural course. In patients with long-standing permanent biliary stricture, pancreatitis limited to the head of the pancreas, duodenal obstruction, or suspected pancreatic head carcinoma, pancreaticoduodenectomy is the operation of choice. Biliary-enteric bypass in association with gastric or pancreatic bypasses should be reserved for patients with severe inflammatory changes preventing a safe pancreaticoduodenectomy.     

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目的 探讨十二指肠乳头癌局部切除术后发生并发症的原因及处理方法。方法 对18例十二指肠乳头癌病人行十二指肠乳头局部切除术，就其术后的并发症：十二指肠梗阻，胆漏，胰漏，十二指肠漏，腹腔出血及腹腔感染作了详细的分析。结果 术后并发症发生率为44．4％（8／18），手术后并发症的病死率为11．1％（2／18），并发症的发生率较国内外报道高，但较胰十二指肠切除术的并发症发生率低。结论 十二指肠乳头癌局部切除术是一种治疗十二指肠乳头癌的手术方法，但必须严格掌握其手术适应证，手术后的并发症发生与术中胰胆管的处理及十二指肠的切开及缝合方法有关。     

慢性胰腺炎的个体化外科干预

慢性胰腺炎发病机制复杂,病情进展多变,导致外科干预时机及手术方式的选择存在一定困难。慢性胰腺炎的治疗应依据个体化原则去除病灶,尽量保存正常胰腺实质,延缓胰腺内、外分泌功能损害的进程,改善患者生命质量,降低胰腺癌发生的风险。慢性胰腺炎患者早期可考虑保守和内镜治疗,胰管梗阻、狭窄合并结石、胰腺实质广泛钙化等慢性胰腺炎患者则需手术治疗。Frey术适合以胰管扩张和胰管结石为主的慢性胰腺炎患者,Beger术适合以胰头部炎性肿块或胰头部钙化为主的慢性胰腺炎患者。     

胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的诊断与治疗

目的：探讨胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的诊治方法。方法：对近15年行胰十二指肠切除术并经病理证实的17例胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎的临床资料进行回顾性分析。结果：本组术前均不能排除胰头癌。17例均行胰十二指肠切除术，术后发生胰漏1例，其余恢复顺利，效果良好。结论：胰头肿块型慢性胰腺炎早期诊断困难，尤其应与胰头癌相鉴别。对不能排除胰头癌或出现顽固性疼痛，胆管、胰管及十二指肠梗阻时，应行胰十二指肠切除术。     

Long-term Results After Surgery for Autoimmune Sclerosing Pancreatitis

Autoimmune sclerosing pancreatitis (ASP) is a recently recognized cause of chronic pancreatitis. The role of operative intervention in this disease is controversial. A single center experience with 161 consecutive pancreatic resections for chronic pancreatitis was retrospectively reviewed. Operative specimens were reanalyzed and assessed for histological features of ASP. Long-term outcome was assessed by patient survey. Eight patients were identified with histological changes consistent with ASP. The pancreatic anatomic configuration according to intraoperative findings and preoperative radiographic evaluation was categorized into (1) diffusely enlarged pancreas (n = 4), (2) localized mass (n = 2), or (3) refractory pancreatic duct disruption without pancreatic enlargement (n = 2). Five patients underwent pancreaticoduodenectomy and three patients underwent distal pancreatectomy. Perioperative morbidity, operative time, and intraoperative estimated blood loss were similar to the same operation for other etiologies of chronic pancreatitis. Biliary obstruction occurred in two patients. Seven patients were alive 5 ± 0.4 years after operation. Good quality of life measured by the SF-36 questionnaire was present in 4 of 7 patients surveyed. Good pain control was achieved with return to work in 5 of 7 patients. Two patients with poor pain control received glucocorticosteroids therapy without improvement in symptoms. Patients with ASP and a mass suspicious for malignancy or refractory duct disruption require operative intervention. Early postoperative outcome, long-term pain control, and improvement in quality of life appear to be good. This study was presented in part at the annual meeting of the American Hepato-Pancreato-Biliary Association, Miami Beach, Florida, March 9–12, 2006.     

Acute pancreatitis caused by extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for bilateral renal pelvic calculi

An elderly woman with a history of cholecystectomy and a re-operation for postoperative peritonitis underwent extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) for right and left renal pelvic calculi, 11 x 6 and 12 x 5 mm in size, to which 2400 and 1400 shots at 20 kV were given, respectively, on the same day. During the evening after the operation, the patient started to complain of upper abdominal pain. Laboratory examination on the next day revealed elevations in blood and urine amylase levels and a diagnosis of pancreatitis was made. Conservative treatment, including administration of protease inhibitor, did not improve her symptoms; abdominal distension became marked and she underwent laparotomy. Necrosection and indwelling of several drain tubes in abdomen were performed with an operative diagnosis of acute necrotic pancreatitis. With daily irrigation of drain tubes and treatment for methicillin-resistant Staphyloococcus aureus infection of the lungs and abdominal cavity, septicemia and duodenal fistula, the patient gradually recovered and was discharged on postoperative day 151. It was suggested that ESWL was responsible for the acute pancreatitis. Either an obstruction of the pancreatic duct by fragments of common duct stone, or mechanical injury of the pancreas due to adhesion between the pancreas and surrounding tissue caused by the lapalotomy, was considered as a possible cause of pancreatitis. To our knowledge, there has been no previous report of severe acute pancreatitis and the present case suggests that ESWL may cause severe pancreatic even in cases without stone shadow in the bile, common duct or pancreatic duct.     

保留十二指肠胰头勺式切除与Whipple术治疗慢性胰腺炎并胰头结石的对比研究

目的探讨保留十二指肠胰头勺式切除术在慢性胰腺炎并胰头结石治疗的价值。方法胰头部结石患者64例,行保留十二指肠胰头勺式切除24例(Ⅰ组)和Whipple术40例(Ⅱ组)。比较两种方法在手术时间、术中出血量、术后血糖及胆红素水平、疼痛缓解、住院时间及并发症等指标的差异。结果两组手术时间、术中出血量均有统计学差异(P<0.05);术后血糖、胆红素变化及腹痛缓解率比较无统计学差异(P>0.05);而住院时间、并发症发生率两组比较有统计学差异(P<0.05)。结论保留十二指肠胰头勺式切除在慢性胰腺炎并胰头部结石术中是安全可行的,相对胰十二指肠切除术,其创伤相对小,术后恢复快,住院时间短,并发症发生率低。     

Obstructive pancreatitis: unusual causes of chronic pancreatitis

Fifty-eight consecutive surgical pancreatic resections for chronic pancreatitis were examined. Eight cases were identified with obstructive pancreatopathy; all underwent pancreato-duodenectomy. Histological examination revealed that obstruction in three cases was due to duodenal wall cysts, and in two patients it was associated with pancreas divisum (the accessory papilla was obstructed by a neuroendocrine tumour in one case and by ectopic pancreatic tissue in the other). One case each was due to obstruction of an anomalous duct by vegetable matter, to segmental pancreatitis, and to an intraductal carcinoma. Obstructive pancreatitis has many causes and diligent pre-operative assessment is required as surgical resection may be beneficial. Special efforts should be made to identify ductal anomalies, duodenal cysts, ectopic pancreatic tissue, and small ampullary tumours of exocrine and endocrine origin in order to define the aetiology of pancreatitis.     

胰头部肿块鉴别诊断和临床对策

胰头部肿块的鉴别诊断中最为困难的是胰头肿块型胰腺炎与胰腺癌的鉴别。近年来,血清肿瘤标记物检查、多排螺旋CT和内镜超声引导穿刺活检等技术的发展为临床鉴别诊断提供了很多帮助,但仍有部分病人不能通过非手术方法获得确诊。对于这些病人,在与病人及家属进行充分沟通后,可以考虑行剖腹探查,建议术中对胰头部肿块行细针多点穿刺细胞学检查,并由专业人员及时处理标本。慢性胰腺炎是胰腺癌的癌前病变,并且可以导致胰管、胆管及十二指肠梗阻,行胰十二指肠切除术或保留十二指肠的胰头切除术能切除病变,缓解疼痛症状,改善病人的生活质量。但由于该手术创伤大,术后并发症发生率较高,应严格掌握手术适应证,加强围手术期处理,由经验丰富的医师实施手术,将并发症的发生率降到最低。