Ultrasound-guided fascial plane blocks of the chest wall: a state-of-the-art review

Ultrasound-guided fascial plane blocks of the chest wall are increasingly popular alternatives to established techniques such as thoracic epidural or paravertebral blockade, as they are simple to perform and have an appealing safety profile. Many different techniques have been described, which can be broadly categorised into anteromedial, anterolateral and posterior chest wall blocks. Understanding the relevant clinical anatomy is critical not only for block performance, but also to match block techniques appropriately with surgical procedures. The sensory innervation of tissues deep to the skin (e.g. muscles, ligaments and bone) can be overlooked, but is often a significant source of pain. The primary mechanism of action for these blocks is a conduction blockade of sensory afferents travelling in the targeted fascial planes, as well as of peripheral nociceptors in the surrounding tissues. A systemic action of absorbed local anaesthetic is plausible but unlikely to be a major contributor. The current evidence for their clinical applications indicates that certain chest wall techniques provide significant benefit in breast and thoracic surgery, similar to that provided by thoracic paravertebral blockade. Their role in trauma and cardiac surgery is evolving and holds great potential. Further avenues of research into these versatile techniques include: optimal local anaesthetic dosing strategies; high-quality randomised controlled trials focusing on patient-centred outcomes beyond acute pain; and comparative studies to determine which of the myriad blocks currently on offer should be core competencies in anaesthetic practice.     

An anatomical evaluation of the serratus anterior plane block

The serratus anterior plane block has been described for analgesia of the hemithorax. This study was conducted to determine the spread of injectate and investigate the anatomical basis of the block. Ultrasound‐guided serratus anterior plane block was performed on six soft‐fix embalmed cadavers. All cadavers received bilateral injections, on one side performed with 20 ml latex and on the other with 20 ml methylene blue. Subsequent dissection explored the extent of spread and nerve involvement. Photographs were taken throughout dissection. The intercostal nerves were involved on three occasions with dye, but not with latex. The lateral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerve contained dye and latex on all occasions. The serratus plane block appears to be mediated through blockade of the lateral cutaneous branches of the intercostal nerves. Anatomically, serratus plane block does not appear to be equivalent to paravertebral block for rib fracture analgesia.     

A randomised trial of serratus anterior plane block for analgesia after thoracoscopic surgery

We evaluated the effect of pre‐operative serratus anterior plane block on postoperative pain and opioid consumption after thoracoscopic surgery. We randomly allocated 89 participants to block with 30 ml ropivacaine 0.375% (n = 44), or no block without placebo or sham procedure (n = 45). We analysed results from 42 participants in each group. Serratus anterior plane block reduced mean (SD) remifentanil dose during surgery, 0.12 (0.06) mg.h^?1 vs. 0.16 (0.06) mg.h^?1, p = 0.016, and reduced mean (SD) fentanyl consumption in the first 24 postoperative hours, 3.8 (1.9) μg.kg^?1 vs. 5.7 (1.6) μg.kg^?1, p = 0.000004. Block also reduced the worst median (IQR [range]) pain scores reported in the first 24 postoperative hours: 6 (5–7 [3–10]) vs. 7 (6–7 [3–10]), p = 0.027. Block decreased dissatisfaction with pain management, categorised as ‘highly unsatisfactory’, ‘unsatisfactory’, ‘neutral’, ‘satisfactory’ or ‘highly satisfactory’: 1/2/21/18/0 vs. 1/14/15/11/1, p = 0.0038. There were no differences in the rates of nausea, vomiting, dizziness or length of hospital stay. Serratus anterior plane block may be used to reduce pain and opioid use after thoracoscopic lung surgery.     

A randomised controlled trial of pectoral nerve-2 (PECS 2) block vs. serratus plane block for chronic pain after mastectomy

Thoracic interfascial plane blocks are effective for post-mastectomy acute analgesia. However, their effects on chronic pain are uncertain. We randomly allocated 80 women equally to pectoral nerve-2 (PECS 2) block or serratus plane block. The pectoral nerve-2 block reduced the rate of moderate or severe chronic pain from 13/40 (33%) with the serratus plane block to 4/40 (10%), p = 0.03, adjusted odds ratio (95%CI) 0.23 (0.07–0.80), p = 0.02. The rates of pain-free women at six postoperative months were indeterminate, 10/40 (25%) after serratus plane block vs. 19/40 (48%) after pectoral nerve-2 block, p = 0.06, adjusted odds ratio (95%CI) 2.9 (1.1–7.5), p = 0.03. Health-related quality of life at six postoperative months was similar after serratus plane and pectoral nerve-2 blocks, mean (SD) EQ-5D-3L scores 0.87 (0.15) vs. 0.91 (0.14), respectively, p = 0.21. The pectoral nerve-2 block reduced median (IQR [range]) morphine consumption in the first 24 postoperative hours from 6 (3–9 [1–25]) mg to 4 (2–7 [0–37]) mg, p = 0.04. However, acute pain scores after serratus plane and pectoral nerve-2 blocks were similar, median (IQR [range]) 23 (11–35 [0–70]) mm vs. 18 (11–27 [0–61]) mm, respectively, p = 0.44. Pectoral nerve-2 block reduced chronic pain 6 months after mastectomy compared with serratus plane block.     

前锯肌平面阻滞对心肺转流下胸腔镜心脏手术患者应激反应和术后镇痛的影响

目的 探讨前锯肌平面阻滞(SAPB)对心肺转流(CPB)下胸腔镜心脏手术患者应激反应和术后镇痛的影响。方法 选择2018年1月至2019年3月行CPB下胸腔镜心脏手术患者40例,男25例,女15例,年龄18～64岁,BMI 18～28 kg/m²,ASAⅢ级。采用随机数字表法分为两组：SAPB组(S组)和对照组(C组),每组20例。S组于麻醉诱导前行超声引导下SAPB,在前锯肌表面缓慢注射0.5%罗哌卡因20 ml, 30 min后测定阻滞效果,满意后实施全凭静脉麻醉。C组不做处理。两组采用相同的全凭静脉麻醉方法,术毕均行静脉自控镇痛。分别于麻醉诱导前(T₁)、CPB前(T₂)、CPB结束时(T₃)、手术结束时(T₄)、手术结束后24 h(T₅)抽取静脉血,测血浆皮质醇(Cor)、肾上腺素(E)、血糖(Glu)、白细胞介素-6(IL-6)、白细胞介素-10(IL-10)的浓度。记录术中及术后24 h舒芬太尼的用量、苏醒时间、气管拔管时间、心胸外科重症监护室...     

Efficacy of erector spinae plane block for analgesia in breast surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis

The erector spinae plane block is a new regional anaesthesia technique that provides truncal anaesthesia for breast surgery. This systematic review and meta-analysis was undertaken to determine if the erector spinae plane block is effective at reducing pain scores and opioid consumption after breast surgery. This study also evaluated the outcomes of erector spinae plane blocks compared with other regional blocks. PubMed, Embase, Scopus, the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials and ClinicalTrials.gov were searched. We included randomised controlled trials reporting the use of the erector spinae plane block in adult breast surgery. Risk of bias was assessed with the revised Cochrane risk-of-bias tool. The Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) framework was used to assess trial quality. Thirteen randomised controlled trials (861 patients; 418 erector spinae plane block, 215 no blocks, 228 other blocks) were included. Erector spinae plane block reduced postoperative pain compared with no block: at 0-2 hours (mean difference (95% CI) −1.63 (−2.97 to −0.29), 6 studies, 329 patients, high-quality evidence, I² = 98%, p = 0.02); at 6 hours (mean difference (95% CI) −0.90 (−1.49 to −0.30), 5 studies, 250 patients, high-quality evidence, I² = 91%, p = 0.003); at 12 hours (mean difference (95% CI) −0.46 (−0.67 to −0.25), 5 studies, 250 patients, high-quality evidence, I² = 58%, p < 0.0001); and at 24 hours (mean difference (95% CI) −0.50 (−0.70 to −0.30), 6 studies, 329 patients, high-quality evidence, I² = 76%, p < 0.00001). Compared with no block, erector spinae plane block also showed significantly lower postoperative oral morphine equivalent requirements (mean difference (95% CI) −21.55mg (−32.57 to −10.52), 7 studies, 429 patients, high-quality evidence, I² = 99%, p = 0.0001). Separate analysis of studies comparing erector spinae plane block with pectoralis nerve block and paravertebral block showed that its analgesic efficacy was inferior to pectoralis nerve block and similar to paravertebral block. The incidence of pneumothorax was 2.6% in the paravertebral block group; there were no reports of complications of the other blocks. This review has shown that the erector spinae plane block is more effective at reducing postoperative opioid consumption and pain scores up to 24 hours compared with general anaesthesia alone. However, it was inferior to the pectoralis nerve block and its efficacy was similar to paravertebral block. Further evidence, preferably from properly blinded trials, is required to confirm these findings.     

Quality of recovery scores in deep serratus anterior plane block vs. sham block in ambulatory breast cancer surgery: a randomised controlled trial

Deep serratus anterior plane block has been widely adopted as an analgesic adjunct for patients undergoing breast surgery, but robust supporting evidence of efficacy is lacking. We randomly allocated 40 patients undergoing simple or partial mastectomy with sentinel node biopsy to receive either a pre-operative deep serratus anterior plane block (serratus group) or a placebo injection (sham group), in addition to systemic analgesia. The primary outcome measure was the quality of recovery score at discharge, as assessed by the quality of recovery-15 questionnaire at various time-points. Secondary analgesic outcomes included: pain severity; postoperative opioid consumption; opioid-related side-effects; patient satisfaction up to 7 days postoperatively; and persistent postoperative pain up to 3 months after surgery. All patients who were recruited completed the study. There were no differences in the quality of recovery-15 scores between patients in the serratus and control groups, with mean (SD) scores of 96 (14) and 102 (20) for the control and serratus groups, respectively. We were also unable to detect differences in any of the secondary analgesic outcomes examined. The addition of a deep serratus anterior plane block to systemic analgesia does not enhance quality of recovery in patients undergoing ambulatory breast cancer surgery.     

Combined thoracic paravertebral and pectoral nerve blocks for breast surgery under sedation: a prospective observational case series

Avoidance of general anaesthesia for breast surgery may be because of clinical reasons or patient choice. There is emerging evidence that the use of regional anaesthesia and the avoidance of volatile anaesthetics and opioid analgesia may have beneficial effects on oncological outcomes. We conducted a prospective observational case series of 16 breast cancer surgeries performed under thoracic paravertebral plus pectoral nerve block with propofol sedation to demonstrate feasibility of technique, patient acceptability and surgeon satisfaction. Fifteen out of 16 cases were successfully completed under sedation and regional anaesthesia, with one conversion to general anaesthesia. Eleven out of 16 cases required low‐dose intra‐operative opioid analgesia. Out of the 15 surgical procedures completed under regional anaesthesia with sedation, all patients experienced either no or minimal intra‐operative pain, and all would choose this anaesthetic technique again. Surgeon‐reported operating conditions were ‘indistinguishable from general anaesthesia’ in most cases, and surgeons were ‘extremely satisfied’ or ‘satisfied’ with the technique after every procedure. Combined thoracic paravertebral plus pectoral nerve block with intra‐operative sedation is a feasible technique for breast surgery.     

胸椎旁神经阻滞和竖脊肌平面阻滞用于胸腔镜肺叶切除术术后镇痛效果的Meta分析

目的:通过Meta分析方法评价超声引导下胸椎旁神经阻滞（thoracic paravertebral nerve block, TPVB）和竖脊肌平面阻滞（erector spinae plane block, ESPB）用于胸腔镜肺叶切除术术后镇痛的效果。方法:计算机检索PubMed、Web of Science、C...     

前锯肌平面阻滞与胸椎旁神经阻滞用于胸腔镜手术患者术后镇痛效果的比较

目的比较前锯肌平面阻滞与胸椎旁神经阻滞用于胸腔镜手术患者术后的镇痛效果。方法选择择期行胸腔镜手术患者60例,男38例,女22例,年龄18～65岁,BMI 18～25kg/m2,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,采用随机数字表法分为前锯肌平面阻滞组(S组)和胸椎旁阻滞组(T组),每组30例。两组患者均采用支气管插管静脉全身麻醉,术后采用PCIA。S组于麻醉诱导前行超声引导下前锯肌平面阻滞,T组则行超声引导下胸椎旁阻滞,两组均使用0.4%罗哌卡因30ml,阻滞完成后30min使用针刺法测定并记录感觉阻滞平面;记录阻滞操作时间、起效时间、持续时间;记录术后2、4、8、12、24、48h的静息和咳嗽VAS评分;记录首次按压镇痛泵时间、术后48h内镇痛泵有效按压次数、舒芬太尼使用总量和哌替啶补救性镇痛例数;记录阻滞相关并发症、镇痛不良反应发生情况。结果与T组比较,S组阻滞操作时间明显缩短,阻滞持续时间明显延长(P0.01);S组术后12h静息时和咳嗽时VAS评分明显降低(P0.01),S组PCIA首次按压时间明显延长,S组PCIA 48h内按压次数、舒芬太尼使用量明显减少(P0.01),两组气胸、恶心呕吐发生率差异无统计学意义。结论超声引导下前锯肌平面阻滞或胸椎旁阻滞均可为胸腔镜手术患者提供良好术后镇痛,但前锯肌平面阻滞较胸椎旁阻滞作用更持久、操作时间更短、并发症更少,且能有效减少患者术后对阿片类药物的需求量。     

The emerging role of pectoral nerve block (PECS block) in breast surgery: A case‐matched analysis

To evaluate the benefits of pectoral nerve block (PECS block) in breast cancer surgery, we compared outcomes of 100 patients receiving PECS vs 107 without PECS. Intraoperative use of fentanyl (P < .001) acetaminophen (P = .02), morphine (P < .01), and nonsteroidal anti‐inflammatory drugs (NSAIDS) (P < .01) was lower in the PECS group. Occurrence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (PONV) was lower in the PECS group (P = .04). On postoperative day 1, the use of acetaminophen (P = .23), morphine (P = .83), and NSAIDS (P = .4) did not differ. Twenty‐one patients received surgery with PECS block plus sedation alone. PECS block can reduce intraoperative use of opioids and analgesic drugs, and is associated with reduced occurrence of PONV. Selected patients can receive breast‐conserving surgery with PECS plus sedation, avoiding general anesthesia.     

超声引导下前锯肌平面阻滞对乳房假体植入术后疼痛的影响

目的探讨超声引导下前锯肌平面(serratus anterior plane, SAP)阻滞对乳房假体植入术患者术后疼痛的影响。方法选择拟全麻下行双侧乳房假体植入术女性患者50例,年龄18～40岁,BMI 18～24 kg/m~2,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,随机分为神经阻滞组(N组)和对照组(C组),每组25例。在常规麻醉诱导前,N组行超声引导下双侧SAP阻滞,每侧注射0.375%罗哌卡因20 ml;C组每侧SAP注射生理盐水20 ml。记录患者术后2、6、12和24 h静息状态下VAS评分、围术期阿片类药物用量、PCIA泵有效按压次数、补救镇痛次数;记录不良反应发生情况和患者满意度。结果与C组比较,N组术后2、6、12和24 h VAS评分明显降低,术中瑞芬太尼用量和术后24 h内舒芬太尼用量明显降低,术后PCIA泵有效按压次数和补救镇痛次数明显减少,患者满意度明显提高(P0.05)。两组并发症发生率差异无统计学意义。结论超声引导下前锯肌平面阻滞可减轻乳房假体植入术患者术后疼痛。     

前锯肌平面阻滞对胸腔镜手术患者术后急性疼痛和炎症反应的影响

目的 观察前锯肌平面阻滞(SAPB)对胸腔镜手术患者术后急性疼痛和炎症反应的影响.方法 选择2018年2月至2020年2月拟行胸腔镜手术患者104例,男64例,女40例,年龄26～64岁,BMI 18～24 kg/m2,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级,采用随机数字表法将其分为两组,每组52例.S组采用全麻联合术前30 min行SAPB...     

Quadratus lumborum block vs. transversus abdominis plane block for caesarean delivery: a systematic review and network meta-analysis*

Caesarean delivery is the most commonly performed inpatient surgical procedure globally. Pain after caesarean delivery is moderate to severe if not adequately treated, and is a primary anaesthetic concern for patients. Transversus abdominis plane and quadratus lumborum blocks are fascial plane blocks that have the potential to improve analgesia following caesarean delivery. Although proponents of the quadratus lumborum block suggest that this technique may provide better analgesia compared with transversus abdominis plane block, there are limited data directly comparing these two techniques. We, therefore, performed a systematic review and network meta-analysis to compare transversus abdominis plane and quadratus lumborum block approaches, seeking randomised controlled trials comparing both techniques to each other, or to control, with or without intrathecal morphine. In all, 31 trials with 2188 patients were included and our primary outcome, the cumulative intravenous morphine equivalent consumption at 24 h, was reported in 12 trials. In the absence of intrathecal morphine, transversus abdominis plane and quadratus lumborum blocks were equivalent, and both were superior to control (moderate-quality evidence). In the presence of intrathecal morphine, no differences were found between control, transversus abdominis plane and quadratus lumborum blocks (moderate-quality evidence). Similar results were found for resting and active pain scores at 4–6 h, 8–12 h, 24 h and 36 h, although quadratus lumborum block was associated with lower pain scores at 36 h when compared with transversus abdominis plane block (very low-quality evidence). However, transversus abdominis plane block was associated with a reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting (moderate-quality evidence) and sedation when compared with inactive control following intrathecal morphine administration (low-quality evidence). There are insufficient data to draw definitive conclusions, but transversus abdominis plane and quadratus lumborum block appear to be superior to control in the absence of intrathecal morphine, but provide limited additional benefit over inactive control when intrathecal morphine is also used.     

连续前锯肌平面阻滞对胸腔镜下肺癌根治术患者术后肺氧合功能的影响

目的比较连续前锯肌平面阻滞(SAPB)和静脉自控镇痛(PCIA)两种镇痛方式在胸腔镜下肺癌根治术患者术后减少肺部并发症、改善肺氧合功能方面的有效性。方法择期行胸腔镜下肺癌根治术患者126例,年龄18～70岁,BMI 18.5～30.0 kg/m~2,ASAⅠ–Ⅲ级,随机分为两组:连续SAPB组(S组)和PCIA组(P组),每组63例。术毕S组行超声引导下前锯肌平面阻滞,注入0.375%罗哌卡因20 ml,留置导管予0.2%罗哌卡因行自控镇痛;P组行舒芬太尼常规PCIA。麻醉诱导前(T_0)、术毕即刻(T_1)、拔管后2 h(T_2)、拔管后6 h(T_3)、拔管后24 h(T_4)抽取桡动脉血记录PaO_2并计算氧合指数(OI)。记录T_2—T_4时静态和活动VAS评分,并记录肺部并发症发生情况。结果与T_0时比较,T_2、T_3时两组OI明显降低,且P组明显低于S组(P0.05)。T_2—T_4时S组VAS评分明显低于P组(P0.05),但两组补救镇痛例数差异无统计学意义。与P组比较,S组低氧血症、肺不张、恶心、呕吐的发生率明显降低(P0.05)。结论连续SAPB较PCIA能够改善胸腔镜下肺癌根治术患者肺氧合功能。     

Single-shot pectoral plane (PECs I and PECs II) blocks versus continuous local anaesthetic infusion analgesia or both after non-ambulatory breast-cancer surgery: a prospective,randomised, double-blind trial

Background

Pectoral plane blocks (PECs) are increasingly used in analgesia for patients undergoing breast surgery, and were recently found to be at least equivalent to single-shot paravertebral anaesthesia. However, there are no data comparing PECs with the popular practice of continuous local anaesthetic wound infusion (LA infusion) analgesia for breast surgery. Therefore, we compared the efficacy and safety of PECs blocks with LA infusion, or a combination of both in patients undergoing non-ambulatory breast-cancer surgery.

超声引导下改良前锯肌平面阻滞对肝移植术患儿镇痛效果的影响

目的 观察经T6、T8水平入路的改良前锯肌平面阻滞(SAPB)对肝移植术患儿镇痛效果的影响。
方法 选择2019年1月至2020年12月择期行肝移植术患儿30例,男15例,女15例,年龄0～3岁,ASA Ⅲ或Ⅳ级。采用随机数字表法分为两组:全身麻醉联合改良SAPB组(S组)和全身麻醉组(C组),每组15例。气管插管后S组于双侧T6、T8水平行超声引导下改良SAPB,注入0.25％罗哌卡因1 ml/kg+地塞米松0.2 mg/kg,各注射点等量均分。两组麻醉诱导和麻醉维持方法一致。术后采用持续静脉泵注咪达唑仑2 μg·kg^-1·min^-1+瑞芬太尼3 μg·kg^-1·h^-1镇痛,并根据Comfort评分调整瑞芬太尼泵速。记录术中芬太尼及瑞芬太尼用量、术后瑞芬太尼用量及瑞芬太尼持续使用时间。于术后1、2、3、4、5、6 d检测总胆红素、白蛋白、AST、ALT浓度。记录ICU治疗时间、气管导管拔管时间以及术后肺部感染、肺不张的发生情况。
结果 与C组比较,S组术中、术后瑞芬太尼用量明显减少(P<0.05),术后瑞芬太尼持续使用时间明显缩短(P<0.05)。两组术中芬太尼用量差异无统计学意义。与术后1 d比较,S组术后2 d AST浓度和术后4 d总胆红素、ALT浓度明显降低(P<0.05);C组术后2 d AST浓度和术后3 d ALT浓度明显降低(P<0.05)。与C组比较,S组ICU治疗时间明显缩短(P<0.05)。两组气管导管拔管时间以及术后肺部感染、肺不张发生率差异无统计学意义。
结论 全身麻醉联合超声引导下改良前锯肌平面阻滞可以减少肝移植术患儿术中、术后镇痛药物用量,可为肝移植术患儿提供良好的围术期镇痛。