What is a normal family? Common assumptions and current evidence

The social and applied human sciences have been built upon the assumption that the normal family consists of a first-marriage conjugal couple cohabiting with biological children. It is taken for granted that the wife should be responsible for child and domestic work, and that the husband should be the family's economic provider and ultimate authority. In the professional literature such traditional family structure is often described as normal in the sense of most common, as well as normal in the sense of well-functioning. Current psychological, sociological, anthropological and historical studies, however, do not support the assumption that the traditional nuclear family is the most natural, common, and/or healthy form of family arrangement. The idealization of the traditional nuclear family has had implications for theory, research, mental health practice, and social policy. Scientists and practitioners have been slow to recognize pathology in traditional nuclear families. Families other than traditional nuclear ones have been rendered invisible or pathologized. It is time for contemporary social and applied human sciences to recognize that the traditional nuclear family is a culturally- and historically-specific construct. It is also time for contemporary social and applied human sciences to develop an account of, and a research agenda about, families that take into consideration their variations across time, place, social class, ethnicity, and culture.     

Mother,father, sister,friend: Metaphor and the craft of child care

Language not only reflects, but shapes our perception of the world. In child care, the perception has been shaped by imagery borrowed from the medical and behavioral-learning models. But these fail to illuminate the key feature of child care, the relationship between child and worker. The metaphors of competence and professionalism attempt to make up for the inadequacies of the other models, yet neither of these ground the abstract care in everyday experience. Developmental science provides the base for a child care perspective, and the metaphors of care need to be sensitive to this base.     

Advancing child and youth care: A model for integrating theory and practice through connecting education,training, and the service system

This article presents a comprehensive model for enabling connections to be made between theory and practice in the field of child and youth care, based on an analysis of current training and education in the field and a multi-step concept of theory-to-practice and practice-to-theory. The model presents a logical sequence of activities that generate and convey knowledge from two sources. One is formal empirical and research information; the other is the conceptualization of practitioners' direct experience. Both are reinforced by trainers and educators with dual connections with practice and training and education settings. The paper stresses that academic programs are a significant component of any profession, in that they are responsible for collecting and codifying emergent knowledge gathered from multiple sources.There is nothing so practical as a good theory. —Kurt Lewin (quoted in Hunt, 1987, p. 4) There is nothing so theoretical as good practice. —David Hunt (1987, p. 11)An earlier version of this paper was the winner of the 1989 Albert E. Trieschman Prize Competition, published author category, for the best original contribution to the literature of child care.     

Comprehensive pediatric primary care vs traditional care in an israeli population: Their influence on pediatric emergency room use and hospitalization

Emergency room (ER) utilization and hospitalization were studied as indicators of the impact of improvements in pediatric primary care services in an Israeli development town, Ofakim, population 12,000. One of the two pediatric services was upgraded in 1976 through the introduction of pediatric faculty, integration of preventive and curative services and conversion of the medical records to a problem-oriented format ( experimental clinic B ). The primary care system remained unchanged in the second clinic ( traditional clinic A ). During 1980, ER utilization by the B clinic population was 9.3/100 compared with 17.6/100 for the A clinic population. Fifty two percent of the B clinic population patients reaching the ER were hospitalized compared with 25% of A clinic patients.The lower ER utilization rate represents a significant saving for the health services, and educational interventions are suggested from the study. Analysis of ER utilization data seems to offer useful information for overall planning and monitoring of ambulatory services for a community.Corresponding author.     

Toxicity of mercury,copper, nickel,lead, and cobalt to embryos and larvae of zebrafish,Brachydanio rerio

The toxicity of mercury (HgCl₂), copper (CuCl₂: 5 H₂O), nickel (NiSO₄: 6 H₂O), lead (Pb(CH₃COO)₂: 3 H₂O) and cobalt (CoCl₂: 6 H₂O) was studied under standardized conditions in embryos and larvae of the zebrafish,Brachydanio rerio. Exposures were started at the blastula stage (2–4 h after spawning) and the effects on hatching and survival were monitored daily for 16 days. Copper and nickel were more specific inhibitors of hatching than cobalt, lead, and mercury. Nominal no effect concentrations determined from the dose-response relationships (ZEPs, Zero Equivalent Points) for effect on hatching time were 0.05 g Cu/L, 10 g Hg/L, 20 g Pb/L, 40 g Ni/L and 3,840 g Co/L, and those for effect on survival time were 0.25 g Cu/L, 1.2 g Hg/L, 30 g Pb/L, 80 g Ni/L, and 60 g Co/L. The no effect concentrations for Ni, Hg and Pb are consistent with previously reported MATC values for sensitive species of fish. The no effect concentrations for copper are 1–2 orders of magnitude lower than previously reported values. The major reason for the latter discrepancy was considered to be the absence of organics that can complex copper ions in the reconstituted water that we used, which had a hardness of 100 mg/L (as CaCO₃) and a pH of 7.5–7.7. Unexposed controls were started with embryos from different parental zebrafishes and the parental-caused variability in early embryo mortality, median hatching time and median survival time were estimated.     

In a Secular Spirit: Strategies of Clinical Pastoral Education

The Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE) model forthe provision of spiritual care represents theemergence of a secularized professionalpractice from a religiously-based theologicalpractice of chaplaincy. The transformation ofhospital chaplaincy into spiritual careservices is one means by which religioushealthcare ministry negotiates modernity, inthe particular forms of the secular realm ofbiomedicine and the pluralism of thecontemporary United States healthcaremarketplace. Spiritual is a labelstrategically deployed to extend the realm ofrelevance to any patient's belief system,regardless of his or her religious affiliation.Theological language is recast as a tool forconceptualizing the spiritual lens. Suchmoves transform chaplaincy from a peripheralservice, applicable only to the few religiouspatients, into an integral element of patientcare for all. Such a secularized professionalpractice is necessary to demonstrate therelevance and utility of spiritual care for allhospital patients in an era of cost-containmentpriorities and managed care economics.     

Toxicity of seleno-L-methionine, seleno-DL-methionine, high selenium wheat, and selenized yeast to mallard ducklings

The toxicity of four chemical forms of selenium (seleno-L-methionine, seleno-DL-methionine, selenized yeast, and high selenium wheat) was compared in day-old mallard ducklings (Anas platyrhynchos). In the first experiment, in which the basal diet was 75% wheat, survival after 2 weeks was lower for ducklings fed 30 g/g selenium as seleno-L-methionine (36%) than for ducklings fed 30 g/g selenium as seleno-DL-methionine (100%) or 30 g/g selenium from high selenium yeast (88%). The concentration of selenium at 2 weeks in the livers of survivors was similar for ducklings fed 15 g/g selenium as seleno-DL-methionine (12 g/g, wet weight), seleno-L-methionine (11 g/g), and high selenium wheat (11 g/g), but was lower when the selenium came from selenized yeast (6.2 g/g). When fed 30 g/g selenium from the various sources, the selenium concentrations in liver were 20 g/g for seleno-DL-methionine, 19 g/g for seleno-L-methionine, and 9.9 g/g for selenized yeast. In a second experiment, in which the basal diet was a commercial duck feed, survival after 2 weeks was 100% in ducklings fed 30 g/g selenium as seleno-DL-methionine, seleno-L-methionine, or selenized yeast. Selenium concentrations in liver were similar for ducklings fed the 30-g/g selenium diets as the DL or L forms of selenomethionine (27 and 25 g/g), but lower for ducklings fed selenized yeast (13 g/g). The greater toxicity of the L form of selenomethionine was probably related to the palatability or nutritional nature of the wheat-based diet used in experiment 1, but the exact reason for the difference between the DL and L forms is unknown. Biologically incorporated selenium, derived from high selenium wheat, was no more toxic than selenium derived from the two purified forms of selenomethionine, and the selenium in selenized yeast was not as toxic as that in the two forms of selenomethionine.     

Health-related quality of life in a rare disease: Hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) or Rendu–Osler–Weber Disease

The levels of the health-related quality of life (HR-QoL) were analyzed in hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT) patients. The Short Form-36 Health Survey (SF-36) was administered to 50 HHT patients and scores were compared to a cohort of 2301 normal subjects. Clinical variables were patient age, illness duration, number of epistaxis episodes in the previous year and hemoglobin levels. Physical functioning, physical role limitations, bodily pain, social functioning, emotional role limitations and the physical component scores were lower among females. In multivariable analyses increasing age was related to lower physical functioning (P<0.04), physical role limitations (P<0.008), bodily pain (P<0.05) and emotional role limitations (P<0.01), while higher hemoglobin levels improved physical functioning(€P<0.03). The number of epistaxis episodes was negatively associated with physical role limitations (€P<0.009), vitality (P<0.002), social functioning (P<0.001), physical component summary (€P<0.001) and bodily pain (P<0.01). Illness duration was negatively related to the mental component summary (P<0.004). HHT patients had a lower HR-QoL with respect to normal controls in all domains except for bodily pain. Females had lower scores for several domains. Epistaxis was the most important clinical variable.     

Ultraviolet and volatility loss of herbicides

Herbicide 2,4-D formulated as a urea-type polymer was readily destroyed by long-wave uv (356-nm) irradiation, whereas conventional 2,4-D was more resistant. The opposite relationship was noted for polymeric and conventional formulations of dicamba. Polymerized 2,4-D was more resistant to thermal degradation (60°C) than non-polymerized formulations. Ultraviolet degradation of polymerized 2,4-D was eliminated by the incorporation of RYLEX-H and UVINUL D-50, industrial uv absorbers. Exposure of polymeric dicamba to 60°C heat, followed by trapping of the volatile component, indicated that 21 percent was lost by thermal degradation and 46.6 percent by volatilization. Comparable values for non-polymerized dicamba were 37.9 and 60.1 percent.     

The Cultural Dimension in Childhood

This article emphasizes the fact that culture surrounds and influences the young people in child and youth care programs all the time, and that child and youth care workers must become cultural mediators for the culturally undernourished when assisting youth in care. This work must add to psychological pedagogics and social pedagogics a third new dimension, cultural pedagogics. Through raising and answering a series of six questions concerning culture, the author hopes to stimulate better practice and educational training in the cultural preparation of young people receiving child care services.     

Percutaneous absorption of N,N-dimethylformamide in humans

Summary Skin penetration fo N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) liquid or vapour was studied in volunteers. Exposure to liquid DMF was performed in two ways: in a dipping experiment, one hand was dipped up to the wrist in DMF for 2–20 min, while in a patch experiment, 2 mmol DMF was applied to the skin and allowed to be absorbed completely. The period of exposure to DMF vapour (50 mg · m^–3) was 4 h. The DMF metabolites N-hydroxymethyl-N-methylformamide (MF), N-hydroxymethylformamide (F), and N-acetyl-S-(N-methylcarbamoyl)cysteine (AMCC) were monitored in the urine. Liquid DMF was absorbed through the skin at a rate of 9.4 mg · cm^–2 · h^–1. Percutaneous absorption of DMF vapour depended strongly on ambient temperature and humidity and accounted for 13%–36% of totally excreted MF. The results suggest that skin absorption of liquid DMF is likely to contribute to occupational exposure substantially more than penetration of DMF vapour. The yield of metabolites after transdermal DMF absorption was only half of that seen after pulmonary absorption. Elimination of MF and F but not that of AMCC was delayed, which supports the contention that AMCC should be used instead of MF as the most suitable biomarker of DMF in cases where percutaneous intake can occur.     

Non-reciprocity in close social relationships, depressive symptoms, and poor self-rated health

Summary Objectives:Associations of experienced non-reciprocity in close social relationships with health are analyzed in a group of middle-aged employed men and women using depressive symptoms and self-rated health as indicators. Methods:Non-reciprocity is measured by a newly developed questionnaire containing three scales: partnership, parent-child, and non-specific close relationships. Depressive symptoms are assessed by the German version of the CES-D scale and self-rated health by a single widely tested item. The factorial structure of the questionnaire measuring non-reciprocity is analyzed. Subsequently, associations are explored using logistic regression analyses with age, gender, socio-economic status, and social support as control variables. Results:The factorial structure of the questionnaire is confirmed. Significantly elevated odds ratios (OR) of depressive symptoms are observed in people who experience non-reciprocity (partnership OR=2.97; parent-child OR=2.70; non-specific OR=1.84). Similarly, the risk of poor self-rated health is significantly elevated in these conditions, except for non-specific non-reciprocity. Conclusions:Based on the newly developed measurement consistent associations of non-reciprocity in close social relationships with depressive symptoms and poor self-rated health are documented.

     

Sublethal Effects of Trace Metals (Cd,Cr, Cu,Hg) on Embryogenesis and Larval Settlement of the Ascidian <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ciona intestinalis</Emphasis>

Toxicity of Cadmium (Cd), Chromium (Cr), Copper (Cu), and Mercury (Hg) on the early developmental stages of Ciona intestinalis was investigated. Developmental defects of larvae after exposure of gametes throughout their development to the larval stage were assessed. Gamete exposure to increasing metal concentrations resulted in a significant decrease of the percentage of normally hatched larvae, showing median effective concentrations (EC₅₀) of 721 g/L (6.42 M) for Cd, 12772 g/L (226 M) for Cr, 36.6 g/L (0.576 M) for Cu, and 44.7 g/L (0.223 M) for Hg. Larval attachment was significantly affected when gametes were exposed to the metals throughout development. The EC₅₀ reducing larval attachment by 50% were 752 g/L (6.7 M) for Cd, 15026 g/L (289 M) for Cr, 67.8 g/L (1.607 M) for Cu, and 78.1 g/L (0.389 M) for Hg. Therefore, on a molar basis Hg is three times more toxic than Cu, 20–30 times more than Cd, and 700–1000 times more toxic than Cr, for both responses.     

Hard hats vs. soft hearts: The conflict between principles and reality in child and adolescent care and treatment programs

Much of child care in volves quick reactions based on one's automatic pilot derived from how we were parented. This paper is about two seemingly universal automatic pilot systems—the hard hats and the soft hearts. Hard hats are behavior management and modification oriented, while soft hearts are psychodynamically and counselling oriented. Typically, the hard hats tend to have the upper hand due to the nature of our culture, and they therefore have the effect of preventing the contributions of the soft hearts from being realized. That all too frequently sets up a dominant culture and a resentful minority situation. To correct this imbalance, a value orientation from the top which emphasizes mutual respect and utilization is suggested.Grateful acknowledgement is made to Ray Peterson for his helpful suggestions in the preparation of this paper.     

Assessment of occupational exposure to 4,4′-methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline) “MOCA” by a new sensitive method for biological monitoring

Summary A new specific and sensitive method for the urinary determination of 4,4-methylene-bis-(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA), a known carcinogen in rats, mice and dogs, has been developed. After a brief study on rats to determine some peculiarities in MOCA urinary excretion, this method was used to assess occupational exposure in French industrial firms. Both the manufacture of MOCA and its use as a curing agent in the production of polyurethane elastomers were surveyed. MOCA excretion levels were distributed from non-detectable (<0.5 g/l) up to 1600 g/l. Concentrations of N-acetyl metabolites, when present, were largely lower than MOCA levels. The results seemed to reflect workers' overall exposure fairly. Preventive measures following analytical determinations often led to an obvious lowering of excretion levels.     

An evolutionary perspective of sex-typed toy preferences: pink,blue, and the brain

Large sex differences in children's toy preferences are attributed to gender group identification and social learning. The proposal outlined in this paper is that contemporary conceptual categories of masculine or feminine toys are also influenced by evolved perceptual categories of male-preferred and female-preferred objects. Research on children exposed prenatally to atypical levels of androgens and research on typically developing infants suggest sex-dimorphic preferences exist for object features, such as movement or color/form. The evolution and neurobiology of mammalian visual processing—and recent findings on sex-dimorphic toy preferences in nonhuman primates—suggest further that an innate bias for processing object movement or color/form may contribute to behaviors with differential adaptive significance for males and females. In this way, preferences for objects such as toys may indicate a biological preparedness for a masculine or feminine gender role—one that develops more fully as early perceptual preferences are coupled with object experiences imposed by contemporary gender socialization.     

Identification of obstacles for chronic pain patients to return to work: evaluation of a questionnaire

The Obstacles to Return-to-Work Questionnaire (ORQ) was developed and evaluated. A total of 154 patients with chronic musculoskeletal pain and prolonged work disability participated in the study. Factor analyses reduced the ORQ to 55 items grouped into 9 subscales. The subscales were named Depression, Pain intensity, Difficulties at work return, Physical workload and harmfulness, Social support at work, Worry due to sick leave, Work satisfaction, Family situation and support, and Perceived prognosis of work return. The subscales showed satisfactory reliability. In order to determine predictive validity a discriminant analysis was conducted with sick leave 9 months after assessment as the outcome. This analysis indicated that the scales Perceived prognosis of work return, Social support at work, Physical workload and harmfulness, Depression, and Pain intensity could significantly predict sick leave and correctly classified 79% of the patients. The Multidimensional Pain Inventory and the Disability Rating Index could also significantly predict sick leave in this sample and correctly classified as many patients as the ORQ. However, these questionnaires do not include any work-oriented items and they had a lower specificity than the ORQ. This study suggests that patients' perceptions and beliefs about work and returning to work may be a significant hindrance for actual recovery.     

Cultural Differences in Residential Child and Youth Care: Analyzing Perspectives

In many Western-European countries, clients from ethnic minority groups form an increasingly large proportion of the client population of child and youth care centers. This development raises the question of how to respond to cultural differences between professionals and clients. In this article we discuss the concepts clinical reality, world view, and acculturation to provide a theoretical framework for studying the influence of cultural differences on the care and support process. We focus on Moroccan youth in Dutch residential youth care centers and present a case from our study to illustrate the theoretical issues raised.     

Absorption,metabolism and elimination of N,N-dimethylformamide in humans

Summary Excretion of N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) and DMF metabolites N-hydroxymethyl-N-methylformamide (MF), N-hydroxymethyl-formamide (F) and N-acetyl-S-(N-methylcarbamoyl)cysteine (AMCC) has been monitored in the urine of volunteers during and after their 8-h exposure to DMF vapour at a concentration of 10, 30 and 60 mg · m^–3. The pulmonary ventilation in these experiments was typically about 101 · min^–1 and the retention in the respiratory tract was 90%. After exposure to 30 mg DMF · m^–3, the yield of compound determined in the urine represented 0.3% (DMF), 22.3% (MF), 13.2% (F) and 13.4% (AMCC) of the dose absorbed via the respiratory tract. The excretion curves of the particular compounds attained their maximum 6–8h (DMF), 6–8h (MF), 8–14h (F) and 24–34h (AMCC) after the start of the exposure. The half-times of excretion were approximately 2, 4, 7 and 23 h respectively. In contrast to slow elimination of AMCC after exposure to DMF, AMCC was eliminated rapidly after AMCC intake. This discrepancy could be explained by rate-limiting reversible protein binding of a reactive metabolic intermediate of DMF, possibly methylisocyanate.     

Men in day care: You've come a long way,buddy!

Male day care teachers have more to offer young children than their masculine presence. It is suggested that pleas for a male role model are misdirected, and that men in day care have valuable contributions to make by modeling and reinforcing not only positive masculine traits but also positive feminine traits. Emphasis, therefore, is placed upon the balance the male caregiver can provide for a humanized environment for young children. Suggestions are given on ways to establish androgynous environment for current and future caregivers.