Diffuse axonal injury in head trauma.

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) as defined by detailed microscopic examination was found in 34 of 80 consecutive cases of head trauma surviving for a sufficient length of time to be clinically assessed by the Royal Adelaide Hospital Neurosurgery Unit. The findings indicate that there is a spectrum of axonal injury and that one third of cases of DAI recovered sufficiently to talk between the initial head injury producing coma and subsequent death. The macroscopic "marker" lesions in the corpus callosum and dorsolateral quadrants of the brainstem were present in only 15/34 of the cases and represented the most severe end of the spectrum of DAI.     

Diffuse axonal injury due to traumatic brain injury alters inhibition of imitative response tendencies

It is well known that traumatic brain injury particularly affects the frontal lobes. Consequently, patients often suffer from executive dysfunction and behavioral disturbances. Accordingly, our study aimed at investigating patients after traumatic brain injury with two tasks involving different functional processes and structural networks supported by the frontal lobes. Two paradigms were applied: the Stroop color-word task and a task in which subjects had to inhibit imitative response tendencies. We selected a patient group solely with diffuse axonal injury, as this type of injury is homogenous and is correlated with cognitive dysfunction more than focal contusions. To evaluate long-term effects most relevant for rehabilitation, we selected a patient group whose brain injuries dated back several years. Our results show that patients with diffuse axonal injury inhibited imitative responses more successfully than control subjects, whereas executive processes examined with the Stroop task were unaltered. Interestingly, impairments were tightly correlated both with the length of the post-traumatic amnesia predicting outcome in traumatic brain injury and with behavioral disturbances. Impairments in the imitation-inhibition task may indicate alterations in an anterior frontomedian neural network even years after traumatic brain injury.     

Unilateral acute foot drop due to diffuse axonal injury after head trauma

Acute foot drop due to diffuse axonal injury (DAI) has not been previously described in the literature. In this report, we present a patient with unilateral acute foot drop caused by a DAI lesion after head trauma.     

Diffuse axonal injury without direct head trauma and with delayed onset of coma

A 16-year-old female was involved in a jet ski (water craft) accident resulting in bilateral lower extremity fractures but no loss of consciousness or any other evidence of head trauma. Thirty hours later she became comatose. Magnetic resonance imaging was consistent with diffuse axonal injury. She recovered after several weeks without any clinical sequelae. This patient demonstrates an unusual example of diffuse axonal injury without direct head trauma and with delayed onset of symptoms. The authors recommend that patients involved in high-velocity accidents, even without immediate evidence of head injury, be observed for signs of diffuse axonal injury.     

Diffuse axonal injury in children: clinical correlation with hemorrhagic lesions

An inception cohort of 40 children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury and suspected diffuse axonal injury were studied using a new high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging susceptibility-weighted technique that is very sensitive for hemorrhage. A blinded comparison was performed between the extent of parenchymal hemorrhage and initial clinical variables as well as outcomes measured at 6 to 12 months after injury. Children with lower Glasgow Coma Scale scores (< or =8, n = 30) or prolonged coma (>4 days, n = 20) had a greater average number (p = 0.007) and volume (p = 0.008) of hemorrhagic lesions. Children with normal outcomes or mild disability (n = 30) at 6 to 12 months had, on average, fewer hemorrhagic lesions (p = 0.003) and lower volume (p = 0.003) of lesions than those who were moderately or severely disabled or in a vegetative state. Significant differences also were observed when comparing regional injury to clinical variables. Because susceptibility-weighted imaging is much more sensitive than conventional T2*-weighted gradient-echo sequences in detecting hemorrhagic diffuse axonal injury, more accurate and objective assessment of injury can be obtained early after insult, and may provide better prognostic information regarding duration of coma as well as long-term outcome.     

Diffuse axonal injury: Novel insights into detection and treatment

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is one of the most common and important pathologic features of traumatic brain injury. The definitive diagnosis of DAI, especially in its early stage, is difficult. In addition, most therapeutic agents for patients with DAI are non-specific. The CT scan is widely used to identify signs of DAI. Although its sensitivity is limited to moderate to severe DAI, it remains a useful first-line imaging tool that may also identify co-morbid injuries such as intracerebral hemorrhage. Recently, investigations have sought to apply advanced imaging techniques and laboratory techniques to detect DAI. Meanwhile, some potential specific treatments that may protect injured axons or stimulate axonal regeneration have been developed. We review some new diagnostic technologies and specific therapeutic strategies for DAI.     

静脉损伤性脑内血肿56例临床分析

外伤性脑内血肿多为脑挫裂伤引起局部动脉破裂所致,由静脉损伤引起的脑内血肿临床较少见.山东省龙口市人民医院神经外科自1996年4月至2007年3月共收治静脉损伤性腩内血肿患者56例,大约占同期收治的颅脑外伤患者的0.53%,现将其临床资料和治疗体会报告如下.     

Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate

Traumatic coma was produced in 45 monkeys by accelerating the head without impact in one of three directions. The duration of coma, degree of neurological impariment, and amount of diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in the brain were directly related to the amount of coronal head motion used. Coma of less than 15 minutes (concussion) occurred in 11 of 13 animals subjected to sagittal head motion, in 2 of 6 animals with oblique head motion, and in 2 of 26 animals with full lateral head motion. All 15 concussed animals had good recovery, and none had DAI. Conversely, coma lasting more than 6 hours occurred in none of the sagittal or oblique injury groups but was present in 20 of the laterally injured animals, all of which were severely disabled afterward. All laterally injured animals had a degree of DAI similar to that found in severe human head injury. Coma lasting 16 minutes to 6 hours occurred in 2 of 13 in the sagittal group, 4 of 6 in the oblique group, and 4 of 26 in the lateral group; these animals had less neurological disability and less DAI than when coma lasted longer than 6 hours. These experimental findings duplicate the spectrum of traumatic coma seen in human beings and include axonal damage identical to that seen in severe head injury in humans. Since the amount of DAI was directly proportional to the severity of injury (duration of coma and quality of outcome), we conclude that axonal damage produced by coronal head acceleration is a major cause of prolonged traumatic coma and its sequelae.     

弥漫性轴索损伤105例临床分析

目的 探讨脑弥漫性轴索损伤的临床疗效. 方法 回顾性分析莆田市第一医院神经外科自2000年3月至2007年10月收治的105例经综合措施治疗的弥漫性轴索损伤患者的临床资料. 结果 所有患者随访6-30个月,死亡23例.存活82例,其中恢复良好20例.中残37例.重残19例,植物生存6例. 结论 早期应用激素、亚低温、高压氧及尼莫地平等综合措施能有效改善弥漫性轴索损伤的预后.     

Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) in an autopsy case of head trauma with long survival]

The authors reported a clinico-pathological case survived 11 months after a traffic accident. A 41-year-old man had been hit by a motor car and was found in a state of semicoma. On admission, his consciousness level was III-100 to 200 (Japan Coma Scale). Pupils were isocoric; light reflex was present. Linear fracture of occipital bone was disclosed by Skull X-ray and subarachnoid hemorrhage was revealed on CT scan. This comatose state, lasting 24 hours, slowly improved and eventually he presented the so-called Korsakoff's syndrome until his death. He could not recognized his relatives, only uttered some meaningless words. He was unable to obey simple verbal orders. The patient was incontinent and right pyramidal sign was positive. On repeated CT scans, cerebral ventricles gradually increased in size; especially the enlargement of the fourth ventricle was remarkable. He expired of septic shock caused by bed sores. At autopsy brain weighed 1190 g. Old gloss contusional scars were observed on the bilateral frontal lobes including the orbital area and on the left temporal pole. Gliding contusions were revealed in the subcortical white matter beneath the left superior frontal convolution. Fibrillary gliosis was noted in this region, the deep white matter underlying the left temporal pole and the tissue surrounding the anterior horn of the left lateral ventricle. Nerve fibers were fragmented and lacerated at corpus callosum, anterior commissure and posterior limb of the left internal capsule. Bilateral pyramidal tracts showed mild myelin pallor at the brainstem. Loss of Purkinje cells were observed. This case would correspond to mile type of diffuse axonal injury proposed by Adams and Gennarelli. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

弥漫性轴索损伤280例临床分析

目的 探讨弥漫性轴索损伤(DAI)患者的临床特点、治疗及预后.方法 广东省揭阳市人民医院神经外科自1999年1月至2009年12月共收治280例DDI患者,其中76例予以双侧开颅减压术治疗,204例保守治疗,回顾性分析患者的临床资料及治疗效果.结果 本组患者恢复良好122例(43.6%),轻残或遗留部分并发症86例(30.7%),重残37例(13.2%),植物性生存2例(0.7%),死亡33例(11.8%).结论 脑肿胀,一侧或双侧瞳孔散大DAI患者应及早行开颅去骨瓣减压术,昏迷时间长者及早行气管切开保持呼吸道通畅,早期脱水治疗选用20%甘露醇+速尿+白蛋白模式,辅助甲强龙冲击及亚低温治疗.

Abstract：

Objective To discuss the clinical features and pathological changes of diffuse axonal injury (DAI), and explore the treatment and prognosis of patients with DAI. Methods Two hundred and eighty patients with DAI, admitted to our hospital from January 1999 to December 2009,were enrolled in our study; bilateral decompressive craniotomy was performed in 76 patients and conservative treatment in 204 patients; the clinical data and treatment efficacy of these patients were retrospectively analyzed. Results Good recovery was achieved in 122 patients (43.6%), mild disability in 86 (30.7%), severe disability in 37 (13.2%), persistent vegetative state in 2 (0.7%) and death in 33 (11.8%). Conclusion Decompressive craniotomy is needed as early as possible for patients with brain swelling, unilateral or bilateral mydriasis; early tracheotomy should be performed for patients in coma for a long time to maintain airway smooth; 20% mannitol plus furosemide plus albumin, together with methylprednisolone and mild hypothermia therapy, can be employed to treat patients with early dehydration.     

Effect of progesterone administration on prognosis of patients with diffuse axonal injury due to severe head trauma

Objective

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) has a major role in mortality rate among the other types of trauma. The aim of this clinical study was to assess the effect of progesterone on the improvement of neurologic outcome in patients with acute severe TBI.

Methods

A total of 76 patients who had arrived within 8 h of injury with a Glasgow Coma Score ≤8 were enrolled in the study. In a randomized style 38 received progesterone (1 mg/kg per 12 h for 5 days) and 38 did not.

Results

There was a better recovery rate and GOS score for the patients who were given progesterone than for those in the control group in a 3-months follow-up period (50% vs. 21%); subgroup analysis showed a significant difference in the percentage of favorable outcome between the two groups with GCS of 5–8 (p = 0.03).

Conclusion

The use of progesterone may significantly improve neurologic outcome of patients suffering severe TBI up to 3 months after injury, especially those with 5 ≤ GCS ≤ 8, providing a potential benefit to the treatment of acute severe TBI patients. Considering this drug had no significant side effects, so progesterone could be used in patients with severe TBI as a neuro-protective drug.     

弥漫性轴索损伤后海马生长抑素样神经元的变化

目的 :弥漫性轴索损伤 (DAI)能导致伤后认知障碍。本实验通过建立实验性 DAI动物模型 ,以了解在 DAI伤后与认知功能关系密切海马生长抑素 (Ss)样神经元的变化。方法 :采用 Marmarou打击装置建立 DAI动物模型 ,免疫组织化学染色以显示海马 Ss样神经元。结果 :1海马 Ss样神经元在重伤组、轻伤组、对照组有显著差异 (P<0 .0 1)。 2损伤后二周组神经元减少与一周组比较有显著差异 (P<0 .0 1或 P<0 .0 5 )。结论 :1DAI后海马 Ss样神经元的减少可能是伤后认知障碍 ,甚至是 DAI后植物生存的主要病理改变之一。 2伤后的迟发性细胞死亡在该种神经元的减少中起着重要作用。     

急性颅脑损伤死亡102例分析

回顾性分析了102例颅脑损伤死亡病人的临床资料。发现在同期340例颅脑损伤中其死亡率为30％,导致病人死亡的主要原因是原发性颅脑损伤过重,继发性脑水肿,并与并发症密切相关。同时结合文献对颅脑损伤的救治进行了分析讨论。     

弥漫性轴索损伤在重型脑损伤中的意义

在15例闭合性脑损伤尸检中,病理诊断弥漫性轴索损伤(DAI)5例。根据病理研究结果和文献报道,分析了530例急性脑外伤病人脑CT表现,发现DAI61例。其CT表现为大脑皮髓质交界处、基底节内囊区域、胼胝体、脑干或小脑有一个或多个直径≤2cm的出血灶,脑室内出血及急性弥漫性脑肿胀。本文把DAI分为高颅压型和非高颅压型,后者又分的脑干损伤型和局灶性损伤型。这种分型对指导治疗和判断预后均有重要意义。DAI预后较差,是目前脑外伤病人死亡率高的重要原因之一。     

盲管性颅脑火器伤119例分析

目的分析盲管性颅脑火器伤的临床特点。方法对１１９例盲管性颅脑火器伤病例进行回顾性分析总结。结果男１０５例,女１４例;平均年龄２１岁。入院时ＧＣＳ９～１５分４８例;６～８分５９例,３～５分１２例。早期合并症主要为脑挫裂伤、颅内血肿、感染等。晚期合并症主要为异物存留及癫痫。死亡１４例,死亡率１１．７％。结论火器伤能产生较大的瞬时伤道,对颅脑造成严重而广泛的损伤,不能用一般颅脑外伤的致伤原理和经验来诊治火器性颅脑伤。准确判断伤情及伤道,早期彻底清创,注意手术方法的选择和手术要点的掌握,以及尽量减少脑组织的继发损伤,防止各种并发症,是降低死亡及残废率的关键。     

Diffuse axonal injury in mild traumatic brain injury: a 3D multivoxel proton MR spectroscopy study

Since mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) often leads to neurological symptoms even without clinical MRI findings, our goal was to test whether diffuse axonal injury is quantifiable with multivoxel proton MR spectroscopic imaging (¹H-MRSI). T1- and T2-weighted MRI images and three-dimensional ¹H-MRSI (480 voxels over 360 cm³, about 30 % of the brain) were acquired at 3 T from 26 mTBI patients (mean Glasgow Coma Scale score 14.7, 18–56 years old, 3–55 days after injury) and 13 healthy matched contemporaries as controls. The N-acetylaspartate (NAA), choline (Cho), creatine (Cr) and myo-inositol (mI) concentrations and gray-matter/white-matter (GM/WM) and cerebrospinal fluid fractions were obtained in each voxel. Global GM and WM absolute metabolic concentrations were estimated using linear regression, and patients were compared with controls using two-way analysis of variance. In patients, mean NAA, Cr, Cho and mI concentrations in GM (8.4 ± 0.7, 6.9 ± 0.6, 1.3 ± 0.2, 5.5 ± 0.6 mM) and Cr, Cho and mI in WM (4.8 ± 0.5, 1.4 ± 0.2, 4.6 ± 0.7 mM) were not different from the values in controls. The NAA concentrations in WM, however, were significantly lower in patients than in controls (7.2 ± 0.8 vs. 7.7 ± 0.6 mM, p = 0.0125). The Cho and Cr levels in WM of patients were positively correlated with time since mTBI. This ¹H-MRSI approach allowed us to ascertain that early mTBI sequelae are (1) diffuse (not merely local), (2) neuronal (not glial), and (3) in the global WM (not GM). These findings support the hypothesis that, similar to more severe head trauma, mTBI also results in diffuse axonal injury, but that dysfunction rather than cell death dominates shortly after injury.