Acute alcohol intoxication,negative affect,and autonomic arousal in women and men

The present study tested the hypothesis that acute moderate alcohol intoxication is associated with reductions in experimentally-induced negative affect among 64 moderately drinking adult women and men. The effort incorporated a balanced placebo design, multiple measures of affective responses including cardiovascular and electrodermal activity, and control for phase of the sexual cycle among nonoral contraceptive women. Negative affect and psychophysiological responses to intoxication following stress manipulation were a complex function of beverage, expectancy, and gender. Expectation of a moderate alcohol dose among women at the premenstruum was associated with higher levels of self-reported anxiety, whereas alcohol consumption guised as tonic seemed to be related to tension reduction. Alcohol tended to increase autonomic arousal among men, but there were no significant changes in negative affect. Moderate intoxication was associated with increase heart rate regardless of gender, and alcohol expectancy increased levels of skin conductance for men and women.     

Effects of family drinking history and expectancies on responses to alcohol in men

The effects of family drinking history and expectancies on responses to alcohol were studied in men nonproblem drinkers aged 19-30. A total of 24 subjects who reported a history of parental alcoholism (FH+) were compared with matched controls who did not have such a family history (FH-) on their responses to drinking either a placebo beverage, a low dose of alcohol or a high dose of alcohol. Despite comparable levels of tolerance and blood alcohol levels (BALs), FH- subjects reported higher levels of intoxication, behavioral impairment, anesthesia and central stimulation than FH+ subjects, regardless of the dose consumed. In contrast, FH+ subjects did more poorly on a timed motor task. There were no significant differences between the two groups on their self-reported beliefs about the effects of alcohol. However, multiple-regression analyses showed that BAL accounted for a greater percentage of the variance in the self-report data of FH- subjects, whereas expectancies were more predictive for the FH+ subjects. The results suggest that FH+ subjects did not base their evaluations of the effects of alcohol as closely on the internal and external consequences of intoxication. This finding is discussed as being one component of their heightened risk for developing alcoholism.     

Protracted impairment of impulse control under an acute dose of alcohol: A time-course analysis

Alcohol is well-known for impairing impulse control as well as its disruptive effects on other aspects of behavioral functioning, such as motor control. Time-course analyses during a single dose show rapid development of acute tolerance to impairment of motor coordination, reaction time, and levels of subjective intoxication, but no acute tolerance to impairment of the ability to inhibit responses. Evidence for a possible lag in tolerance development to the impairing effects of alcohol on inhibitory control suggests that, as drinkers' blood alcohol concentration (BAC) declines, they might exhibit prolonged impulsivity despite having an unimpaired ability to initiate action. The present study extended the time-course analysis to examine the recovery of inhibitory control under a dose of alcohol as drinkers' BAC descended from a peak of 80 mg/100 ml to a zero level. Twenty-four healthy adults were tested following 0.65 g/kg alcohol and a placebo in a counterbalanced order. They performed a cued go/no-go task that measured response inhibition. They also performed tasks that assessed reaction time, motor coordination, and completed ratings of their subjective levels of intoxication. Alcohol initially impaired inhibitory control, response time, and motor coordination and increased subjective ratings of intoxication. However, acute tolerance to the impairing effects of alcohol was observed for measures of response time, motor coordination, and ratings of intoxication and these measures returned to sober (i.e., placebo) levels by the time BAC fell to near zero. By contrast, impairment of inhibitory control showed no acute tolerance and remained impaired even when drinkers' BAC returned to near zero. Taken together, these results indicate that the disinhibiting effects of alcohol are present even when the impairing effects of alcohol on other aspects of behavior have diminished under the dose. These findings could provide a greater understanding of impulsive behaviors during the descending limb of intoxication.     

Effect of chronic acetaldehyde intoxication on ethanol tolerance and membrane fatty acids

Recent studies have suggested that acetaldehyde participates directly in the pathogenesis of alcoholism. Its action has been attributed mainly to its physico-chemical properties. Results of direct intoxication of laboratory animals with acetaldehyde have been reported, but only for short periods of exposure and at high doses. These are probably not representative of the conditions found during alcohol intoxication. The pulmonary route of administration described here enables long term intoxication with acetaldehyde, at levels corresponding to values measured during chronic ethanol intoxication. Chronic administration of acetaldehyde during 3 weeks induced a metabolic tolerance to ethanol as tested by the sleeping time after a challenge dose of ethanol; behavioural tolerance (measured by blood alcohol levels on waking) was not observed. At the end of the intoxication, phospholipid fatty acids of erythrocyte and synaptosome membranes were also analysed. Small changes in levels of the shorter fatty acids were observed in the phosphatidyl-choline fraction. By comparison with the effects of ethanol on the same membrane preparations, only a small part of this effect can be attributed to acetaldehyde. The first metabolite of ethanol has, however, a sure effect on the pattern of fatty acid phospholipids.     

Menstrual cycle, tolerance and blood alcohol level discrimination ability

Relationships between variations in blood alcohol level (BAL) and blood alcohol level discrimination accuracy were investigated as a function of menstrual cycle, hormonal variations, and behavioral tolerance to alcohol in 20 female social drinkers. All subjects consumed a moderate dose of alcohol on three occasions during one complete menstrual cycle. Subjects estimated their level of intoxication eight times during each drinking session. Each subject's behavioral tolerance to alcohol each session was assessed by a body sway procedure. Subjects also completed detailed questionnaires on symptoms related to menstrual period and familial history of alcohol use. Contrary to earlier reports, (1) no difference in total time of intoxication or in other indices of ethanol metabolism was found between women (N = 9) who were not taking birth control pills and those (N = 11) who were and (2) no difference was found in peak BAL as a function of menstrual cycle phase. Stage of menstrual cycle did not affect the accuracy of BAL estimation. A trend approaching significance suggested that, with increasing BAL, women in the oral contraceptive group were more accurate in their estimates of intoxication. A significant interaction between menstrual cycle phase and tolerance levels was found; high tolerant women were significantly less accurate than low tolerant women in estimating BAL during the midcycle phase of the menstrual cycle.     

Effects of alcohol on sexual reflexes and mating behavior in the male rat

Summary In order to determine if some of the impairment of sexual behavior by alcohol reflects a selective depressive action of alcohol on sexual reflexes, intraperitoneal injections of 1, 2 and 3 gm per kg doses of alcohol, as well as a control dose of saline, were given to intact and spinal adult male rats. Intact males were tested for sexual behavior and spinal males were tested for sexual reflexes. The number of genital responses in spinal subjects with the 2 and 3 gm doses of alcohol were significantly less than the number of genital responses with saline injections or lower doses of alcohol. With the 1 gm dose intact subjects appeared normal. With the 2 gm dose intact subjects were sexually motivated, as indicated by their attempts to copulate with a receptive female, but there was a significant reduction in number of ejaculations and a significant increased latency to ejaculation. There was also a depression of other measures of sexual activity. With the 3 gm dose all intact subjects fell asleep. The results support the conclusion that with certain levels of alcohol intoxication, sexual motivation, reflecting the activity of higher neural structures, may remain while sexual potency or capability, reflecting the activity of sexual reflexes in the spinal cord, is diminished.Supported in part by Grant MH 12003 from the National Institute of Mental Health. The technical assistance of Charles M. Haugen and Veryl T. Kuchar is gratefully acknowledged.     

Subjective and objective measures of response to alcohol among young men at risk for alcoholism

Biological sons of alcoholic men constitute one group at high risk (HR) for the development of alcoholism. A low dose of alcohol (0.5 g/kg) was administered to HR and control subjects. Measures based on self-ratings, an observer's assessment and visuomotor performance were used to compare the HR and control subjects before and after alcohol administration. Results showed HR subjects' self-ratings of intoxication and somatic symptoms were significantly lower than those of control subjects after alcohol administration. Measures based on an observer's assessment of the two groups did not distinguish them, but one measure of visuomotor performance did. Because the HR and control subjects did not differ in self-reported alcohol consumption or blood alcohol levels acquired in this study, it appears unlikely these factors could account for the differential responses to alcohol administration in HR and control subjects.     

An evaluation of the sensitivity of the Standardised Field Sobriety Tests (SFSTs) to detect impairment due to marijuana intoxication

The Standardised Field Sobriety Tests (SFST) were developed to test for alcohol intoxication but are currently being used by the State Police of Victoria (Australia) to test for driving impairment associated with drugs other than alcohol. The aim of the present study was to assess whether the SFSTs provide a sensitive measure of impairment following the consumption of a drug other than alcohol: delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC or cannabis). In a repeated-measures design, 40 participants consumed cigarettes that contained either 0% THC (placebo), 1.74% THC (low dose) or 2.93% THC (high dose). For each condition, after smoking a cigarette, participants performed the SFSTs on three occasions: 5 min (Time 1), 55 min (Time 2) and 105 min (Time 3) after the smoking procedure had been completed. The results revealed that there was a positive relationship between the dose of THC administered and the number of participants classified as impaired based on the SFSTs. Results also revealed that the percentage of participants classified as impaired decreased from Time 1 to Time 3 and that the addition of a new sign, head movements or jerks (HMJ), increased the percentage of participants classified as impaired in both the low and high THC conditions. These findings suggest that impaired performance on the SFSTs is positively related to the dose of THC administered and that the inclusion of HMJ as a scored sign in the SFSTs improves their predictive validity when testing for THC intoxication.     

Environmental contexts of combined alcohol and energy drink use: Associations with intoxication in licensed venues

BackgroundEnvironmental factors inside licensed venues have been found to influence the intoxication levels and consumption practices of patrons. The consumption of alcohol mixed with energy drinks (AmED) occurs primarily at or prior to attending licensed venues, however there is a lack of in situ research investigating AmED use in these contexts. Given that AmED use has been linked with increased alcohol consumption, intoxication, illicit substance use, and risk taking behaviours, this paper explores the environmental correlates and levels of intoxication associated with AmED use in licensed venues.MethodsStructured observations were undertaken in five Australian cities on Friday and Saturday nights. Covert teams spent 4–5 h in venues and recorded hourly observations on patron, venue, and staff characteristics, alcohol, illicit drug and AmED consumption patterns and intoxication levels.Results898 hourly observations were recorded across 68 venues. All but one venue served energy drinks, and patron AmED use was observed during 34.9% of hourly records. AmED use was more prevalent after 12am and in nightclub venues compared to bars and pubs, and was positively associated with high intoxication levels, illicit drug use, and younger crowds. After controlling for environmental factors (i.e. venue crowding, service practices, venue characteristics, patron demographics and behaviour) AmED use did not predict high intoxication at a venue level in multivariable models.ConclusionAmED consumption is ubiquitous in the licensed venues of Australian night-time entertainment districts, particularly busy nightclub venues where intoxication and risky consumption are heightened. However, AmED use was not associated with high patron intoxication when environmental factors were considered.     

Alcohol intoxication and sexual risk behaviors among rural-to-urban migrants in China

BACKGROUND: The migrant population in China is at high risk for sexual risk behavior and alcohol intoxication. Information about the prevalence of alcohol intoxication and its association with sexual risk behavior among migrants is needed for designing effective intervention prevention programs for reduction in alcohol abuse and HIV infection. METHODS: Cross-sectional data were collected from 2153 sexually experienced young rural-to-urban migrants in Beijing and Nanjing, China, in 2002. RESULTS: Approximately one-third of the participants had been intoxicated with alcohol at least once during the previous month, with more males than females reporting intoxication (40.2% versus 23.7%, p<0.001). Compared to non-intoxicated participants, respondents with alcohol intoxication in previous 30 days reported more psychological problems, including higher depression scores, lower levels of satisfaction with life and work, and higher perception of peer involvement in risk behavior. Intoxicated respondents were more likely to engage in premarital sex than non-intoxicated respondents (76% versus 60.2%, p<0.001), have multiple sexual partners (13.4% versus 5.2%, p<0.001), purchase sex (12.6% versus 4.9%, p<0.001), and sell sex (10.1% versus 3.7%, p<0.001). However, there was no association between alcohol intoxication and inconsistent/non-use of condoms. Multivariate analysis controlling for depression, peer risk involvement, age, gender, and other socio-demographic variables indicated that alcohol intoxication was independently correlated with premarital sex, multiple sexual partners, and buying and selling sex. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to the general Chinese population, levels of intoxication were elevated among Chinese rural-to-urban migrants. Alcohol intoxication was associated with sexual risk behaviors. HIV/AIDS prevention and intervention efforts should include components of alcohol use/abuse prevention for an effective reduction of sexual risk among young rural-to-urban migrants in China.     

Dose dependent effects of alcohol on visual evoked potentials

The effects of various alcohol doses on components of the visual evoked potential were investigated. Using a repeated measures, Latin square design, five alcohol dose conditions were administered to ten male subjects: 0.00 (placebo); 0.28; 0.36; 0.54 and 0.72 g/kg total body weight. EEG responses to a reversing checker board stimulus were measured in a standard oddball paradigm. In the alcohol conditions, latencies of the P1 and P2 components of the VEP were unaffected. However, reaction time, and the latencies of N2 and P3 displayed significant dose related increases with increasing blood alcohol levels. Further, RMS power of the P3 complex was reduced by higher alcohol doses, as was the N2-P3 amplitude difference at central and parietal sites. It is concluded that the latency and power of the endogenous components of the VEP are altered by alcohol, without effects being seen in earlier components.     

Reduced Subjective Response to Acute Ethanol Administration Among Young Men with a Broad Bipolar Phenotype

Elevated lifetime prevalence rates of alcohol use disorders (AUDs) are a feature of bipolar disorder (BD). Individuals at-risk for AUDs exhibit blunted subjective responses to alcohol (low levels of response), which may represent a biomarker for AUDs. Thus, individuals at-risk for BD may exhibit low responses to alcohol. Participants were 20 unmedicated adult males who reported high rates of hypomanic experiences (bipolar phenotype participants; BPPs), aged 18 to 21 years, and 20 healthy controls matched on age, gender, IQ, BMI, and weekly alcohol intake. Subjective and pharmacokinetic responses to acute alcohol (0.8 g/kg) vs placebo administration were collected in a randomized, double-blind, cross-over, placebo-controlled, within-subjects design. BPP participants reported significantly lower subjective intoxication effects (‘feel high'': F=14.2, p=0.001; ‘feel effects'': F=8.1, p=0.008) across time, but did not differ in their pharmacokinetic, stimulant, or sedative responses. Paradoxically, however, the BPP participants reported significantly higher expectations of the positive effects of alcohol than controls. Our results suggest that unmedicated young males with previous hypomanic experiences exhibit diminished subjective responses to alcohol. These blunted alcohol responses are not attributable to differences in weekly alcohol intake, pharmacokinetic effects (eg, absorption rates), or familial risk of AUDs. These observations suggest that the dampened intoxication may contribute to the increased rates of alcohol misuse in young people at-risk for BD, and suggest possible shared etiological factors in the development of AUDs and BD.     

Genetic risk for alcoholism relates to level of response to alcohol in Asian-American men and women

OBJECTIVE: Previous studies have shown that Asians who possess a variant aldehyde dehydrogenase allele (ALDH2*2) have lower rates of alcohol consumption and dependence. Research in Asian men has shown that those with ALDH2*2 have greater responses to alcohol than do those without this genetic variant. The present study was designed to determine whether similar levels of response to alcohol, using objective and subjective measurements, are seen in men and women with different ALDH2 genotypes. METHOD: Participants (N = 30) were 16 men and 14 women, of whom five each were heterozygous for ALDH2*2. They were evaluated in response to alcohol and placebo beverage challenges, dosed according to estimated body water. Objective and subjective responses were measured every 30 minutes from baseline to 150 minutes after ingestion. RESULTS: Men and women with ALDH2*1/*2 had greater pulse-rate increases, greater observed flushing responses and greater subjective feelings of being dizzy, drunk and high compared with ALDH2*1/*1 participants, despite having equivalent breath alcohol concentrations. ALDH2*1/*2 participants also reported being less likely to drive, following this level of intoxication, compared with ALDH2*1/*1 participants. Some gender differences were found in subjective, but not objective, responses to alcohol, with women reporting lower levels of being high, nauseated and uncomfortable and having a lower total subjective rating scale score. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that low risk for alcoholism based on possession of an ALDH2*2 allele relates to greater response to alcohol in both men and women.     

Spontaneous activity of autonomie functions in coma due to drug overdose

Spontaneous heart rate, respiration rate and electrodermal activity were studied in 32 patients with different grades of severe poisoning by ingestion of various drugs. The degree of their behavioural impairment was determined with the Munich Coma Scale (MCS) which measures stimulus evoked somatomotor responses. There was a significant reduction of spontaneous variations of heart rate and respiration rate with increasing severety of coma. Spontaneous electrodermal fluctuations were present only at the least severe grades of impairment. Thus, cardiorespiratory and electrodermal activity can provide significant information on the level of behavioural impairment in severe poisoning.     

Alcohol effects on movement-related potentials: a measure of impulsivity?

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effects of acute alcohol intoxication on lateralized readiness potential (LRP), a central measure of movement-related brain activity, and the potential association of such effects with personality measures. METHOD: Male volunteers (N = 12) alternated responding hands during a "go/no go" verbal recognition task across all four sessions of the balanced placebo design in which beverage content (either juice only or a vodka and juice mixture that raised the average blood alcohol concentration to 0.045%) was crossed with instructions as to beverage content. RESULTS: Whereas the instructions had no effect on behavioral (response accuracy and reaction time) and physiological (LRP) measures, alcohol decreased reaction times adjusted for psychometer speed. As expected, large LRPs were recorded on "go" trials and were not affected by the beverage. However, the "no go" words that did not require and did not evoke motor responses, also evoked significant LRPs under alcohol but not placebo. Since only trials with correct responses and correct abstentions from responses were included in the averages, the motor preparation was not completed and was terminated before the motor response on "no go" trials. Similarly, there was a decrease in spectral power of the movement-related mu-rhythm on "no go" trials under alcohol. CONCLUSIONS: Alcohol may result in disinhibition such that the "response execution" process is activated based on very preliminary stimulus evaluation. This alcohol-induced brain activity signaling premature motor preparation exhibited correlation trends with personality traits related to impulsivity, hyperactivity and antisocial tendencies, thus concurring with other evidence that indicates commonalities between alcoholism and impulsivity, disinhibition and antisocial behaviors. The LRP on "no go" trials could potentially be used as a psychological index of the impulsiveness induced by alcohol intoxication.     

Spontaneous activity of autonomic functions in coma due to drug overdose.

Spontaneous heart rate, respiration rate and electrodermal activity were studied in 32 patients with different grades of severe poisoning by ingestion of various drugs. The degree of their behavioural impairment was determined with the Munich Coma Scale (MCS) which measures stimulus evoked somatomotor responses. There was a significant reduction of spontaneous variations of heart rate and respiration rate with increasing severity of coma. Spontaneous electrodermal fluctuations were present only at the least severe grades of impairment. Thus, cardiorespiratory and electrodermal activity can provide significant information on the level of behavioural impairment in severe poisoning.     

Effects of alcohol on tests of executive functioning in men and women: a dose response examination

Alcohol has been shown to affect performance on tasks associated with executive functioning. However, studies in this area have generally been limited to a single dose or gender or have used small sample sizes. The purpose of this study was to provide a more nuanced and systematic examination of alcohol's effects on commonly used tests of executive functioning at multiple dosages in both men and women. Research volunteers (91 women and 94 men) were randomly assigned to one of four drink conditions (alcohol doses associated with target blood alcohol concentrations of .000%, .050%, .075%, and .100%). Participants then completed three tasks comprising two domains of executive functioning: two set shifting tasks, the Trail Making Test and a computerized version of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, and a response inhibition task, the GoStop Impulsivity Paradigm. Impaired performance on set shifting tasks was found at the .100% and .075% dosages, but alcohol intoxication did not impair performance on the GoStop. No gender effects emerged. Thus, alcohol negatively affects set shifting at moderately high levels of intoxication in both men and women, likely attributable to alcohol's interference with prefrontal cortex function. Although it is well established that alcohol negatively affects response inhibition as measured by auditory stop-signal tasks, alcohol does not appear to exert a negative effect on response inhibition as measured by the GoStop, a visual stop-signal task.     

Lack of acute alcohol effects on estradiol and luteinizing hormone in female macaque monkey

The effects of alcohol (1.5, 2.5, 3.5 g/kg) on 17-β estradiol and LH were evaluated in adult female Macaque monkeys. Integrated plasma samples were collected prior to and following nasogastric intubation of alcohol or isocaloric sucrose control solutions. Samples were collected at 30 minute intervals over 240 minutes. Each alcohol dose and control was studied at menstruation, the peri-ovulatory and mid-luteal periods and the premenstruum. After low, moderate and high doses of alcohol, blood alcohol levels (BAL) averaged 140, 260 and 344 mg/dl at the peak of the ascending BAL curve. Despite high blood alcohol levels, there was no evidence of alcohol dose-related suppression of LH or 17-β estradiol at any phase of the menstrual cycle. These data are consistent with our findings in human females that acute alcohol intoxication did not suppress LH or estradiol. The apparent resiliency of human and Macaque females to acute alcohol effects on reproductive hormones contrasts sharply with data obtained in males that alcohol significantly suppresses testosterone in all species studied.     

A possible link between morphine and alcohol preferences in rat

Sprague-Dawley rats were intoxicated with alcohol or morphine, by ingestion in a fluid diet. Alcohol or morphine preference was studied in two-bottle choice tests. Preference increased up to a certain level with increasing time of intoxication at one dose level. Some 10% of the animals had an extremely high preference already after a short ingestion period. Another 10% showed an extremely low drug preference even after long intoxication. When rats were consecutively intoxicated with morphine and alcohol, or vice versa, followed by choice tests with the respective drug, the statistical correlation between alcohol and morphine preference was weak in the individual rats. Approximately 20% of the high morphine preference rats also had a high alcohol preference. Early postnatal morphine intoxication slightly increased morphine, but not alcohol preference in the physically dependent male adult rats. Thus, there seem to be different and specific mechanisms underlying the alcohol and opiate preference in rats, although some overlapping probably exists.     

Women's condom use assertiveness and sexual risk-taking: effects of alcohol intoxication and adult victimization

This experiment examined relationships among adulthood victimization, sexual assertiveness, alcohol intoxication, and sexual risk-taking in female social drinkers (N=161). Women completed measures of sexual assault and intimate partner violence history and sexual assertiveness before random assignment to 1 of 4 beverage conditions: control, placebo, low dose (.04%), or high dose (.08%). After drinking, women read a second-person story involving a sexual encounter with a new partner. As protagonist of the story, each woman rated her likelihood of condom insistence and unprotected sex. Victimization history and self-reported sexual assertiveness were negatively related. The less sexually assertive a woman was, the less she intended to insist on condom use, regardless of intoxication. By reducing the perceived health consequences of unprotected sex, intoxication indirectly decreased condom insistence and increased unprotected sex. Findings extend previous work by elucidating possible mechanisms of the relationship between alcohol and unprotected sex - perceived health consequences and situational condom insistence - and support the value of sexual assertiveness training to enhance condom insistence, especially since the latter relationship was robust to intoxication.