Blood transfusion in South Africa

Sixty years of development have transformed previously small collection centres into major regional transfusion services. These organisations collect and process nearly 900,000 units of blood annually from a donor base of some 500,000 individuals with a male to female ratio of 5:3. Three quarters of the donations are from a regular pool of largely white people. The latter has both a cultural and socio-economic component that needs redress to meet expanding requests. The range of products and quality of newer technologies, including those that are centered on aphereses are commensurate with first world standards. Quality control is universally monitored and registration falls under prevailing legislation. The future of these vitally important services will need to accommodate changing priorities in South Africa. Specific challenges are a greater commitment to primary health care, the rapidly rising incidence of HIV-positivity and centralisation of some facilities including plasma fractionation.     

HIV and blood transfusion in sub-Saharan Africa

Blood transfusion services were poorly developed until the mid 1980s in most of sub-Saharan Africa, and were unable to provide adequate supplies of blood with acceptable safety. The pandemic of HIV was recognized seroepidemiologically from 1985 onwards. Blood transfusion was contributing from 10 to 15% to transmission in Africa. Groups at highest risk are children with malaria and anaemia, women with pregnancy-related haemorrhage or anaemia, victims of trauma and subjects with sickle-cell disease. Haemophiliacs are not a major risk group in comparison. Blood transfusion services have undoubtedly benefitted from the international, national and regional responses to the AIDS epidemic. Organizational structures have been established. There have been concerted moves to recruit voluntary unremunerated blood donors, selected from population groups with low seroprevalence. Serological screening for HIV, hepatitis viruses and syphilis has been introduced or strengthened. Standards for blood group serology, blood storage and handling have been improved. Guidelines for the appropriate use of blood have been formulated and adopted. There have been many training and retraining programmes. Much remains to be completed, however, using national and international resources, before the blood supply reaches acceptable standards of safety and is adequate in remote as well as in central areas of Africa.     

Evolution in indications for blood component transfusion.

Indications for blood components are changing but continue to be based on a combination of clinical assessment and laboratory data. In the perioperative setting, some decisions must be made before laboratory data are available. To prevent the inappropriate usage of blood components, prophylactic or expectant treatment should be limited. In red cell transfusion, physiologic indices of oxygen utilization may soon supplement hemoglobin/hematocrit levels in clinical decision making. Less progress has been made in transfusion for hemostasis. Well-designed clinical studies are needed to answer remaining questions; in the interim, nationally accepted guidelines are available to assist clinicians in their decisions.     

Towards safer blood transfusion practice

The objective of this study was to determine the current state of transfusion practice at a large metropolitan hospital in South Australia, with a view to making recommendations to improve safety. Transfusion practice was monitored using a questionnaire and a concurrent audit design. Patients identified as having received a packed red blood cell transfusion in the previous 24 h, were selected by a random number generator. Questions included those about blood pack identification, documentation of the transfusion process, and patient observation. The results of this audit indicated that areas of documentation, primarily patient consent, blood pack administration times and patient monitoring required re-evaluation. Recommendations to improve practice were made based on these results. This is an ongoing service provided by the hospital, which has proven invaluable in identifying deficiencies in transfusion practice in order to improve patient care.     

Promoting safer blood transfusion practice in hospital

Results from a national comparative audit of bedside transfusion practice show that patients in the UK are at risk of misidentification and poor monitoring when undergoing a blood transfusion. A commonly identified reason for poor compliance with guidelines from the British Committee for Standards in Haematology (BCSH et al 1999) is a lack of awareness of good transfusion practice (National Blood Service (NBS) 2005). This article discusses the implications of the audit findings for the administration of blood at the bedside and examines initiatives to support hospital staff in their efforts to improve blood transfusion safety.     

Massive blood transfusion in the elective surgical setting.

Massive haemorrhage in elective surgery can be either anticipated (e.g. organ transplantation) or unexpected. Management requires early recognition, securing haemostasis and maintenance of normovolaemia. Transfusion management involves the transfusion of packed red cells, platelet concentrates and plasma (fresh frozen plasma and cryoprecipitate). Blood product support should be based on clinical judgment and be guided by repeated laboratory tests of coagulation. Although coagulation tests may not provide a true representation of in vivo haemostasis, they do assist in management of haemostatic factors. Below critical levels (prothrombin time or activated partial thromboplastin time >1.8; fibrinogen <1.0 g/l; platelet count < 80 x 10(9) 1(-1)) it is difficult to achieve haemostasis. Despite seemingly adequate blood component therapy there remain situations where haemorrhage is uncontrollable. In this setting, alternative approaches must be considered. These include the use of other blood products (e.g. prothrombin complex concentrates; fresh whole blood; fibrin glue) and pharmacological agents (e.g. aprotinin). Complications of massive transfusion result in significant morbidity and mortality. These may be secondary to the storage lesion of the transfused blood products, disseminated intravascular coagulation, hypothermia or hypovolaemic shock. The use of fresh blood products and leucocyte-reduced packed red cells and platelets, may minimise some of the adverse clinical sequelae.     

Improving blood transfusion practice: role of a computerized hospital information system

The recent focus on medical risk and financial cost has prompted a need for better guidelines for prescribing the transfusion of blood components. In 1987, to respond to the issues of quality transfusion practice and accurate evaluation, LDS Hospital (Salt Lake City, UT) began using a computerized, knowledge-based blood-ordering system. Each transfusion request was reviewed and flagged by the computer when it did not meet the criteria established by the medical staff. The study reviewed the use of red cells, platelets, and fresh-frozen plasma in 13,082 transfusion orders for 5847 consecutive patients from July 1, 1988, through June 30, 1989. The evaluation assessed, first, the adherence of physicians to computerized criteria and, second, their adherence to the quality of transfusion practice. A high percentage of the blood units ordered met the established criteria: 91.2 percent for the red cell transfusions, 72.9 percent for platelets, and 81.7 percent for fresh-frozen plasma. From the July 1, 1987, implementation date through June 1989, the mean hematocrit of persons being transfused dropped from 28.6 to 27.7 percent (0.29 = 0.28) (p less than 0.005) and the number of orders requiring review by the quality assurance department dropped from 100 to 14 percent; moreover, there was a true-exception rate of only 0.37 percent. The use of the computer system effected the implementation of the following measures: 1) identification of the indications and establishment of clear clinical and biologic parameters for every transfusion, and 2) measurement and improvement of institutional transfusion practice. These results demonstrated the efficacy of a computerized hospital information system in implementing continuous quality improvement for transfusion practice.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Development and evaluation of a new paediatric blood transfusion protocol for Africa

Severe anaemia is a common childhood emergency in developing countries. Practical evidence‐based guidance on when to transfuse, volume of transfusion and ideal duration of transfusion is lacking. The aim of this study is to develop a paediatric transfusion protocol for use in under‐resourced environments and evaluate its usability in a busy African hospital setting. A paediatric transfusion protocol based on the WHO Guidelines was developed for the Queen Elizabeth Central Hospital (QECH), Blantyre, Malawi. On the basis of simple bedside clinical features of respiratory, cardiovascular and neurological compromise, the protocol allocates children with severe anaemia (haemoglobin ≤ 6 g dL^?1) to one of the three groups: complicated anaemia, uncomplicated anaemia and anaemia with severe malnutrition. Data were collected to monitor protocol adherence, delays to transfusion, post‐transfusion haemoglobin and need for repeat transfusion. Two‐hundred and fifteen severely anaemic children were enrolled: 180 complicated, 25 uncomplicated and 10 severely malnourished. With respect to protocol adherence, all children were allocated to the correct transfusion group; correct volume (±10%) was given in 89·3%; correct duration (±30 min) in 86·2% and correct overall rate (±10%) in 78·6%. Comparing old and new transfusion guidelines, a potential avoidable transfusion rate of 29% was found. This study demonstrates that clear and detailed transfusion guidelines based on simple bedside clinical features can be used in a very busy children's hospital in sub‐Saharan Africa. With minimal additional equipment, volume and duration of transfusion can be well controlled. Furthermore, having a protocol in place results in a significant reduction of avoidable transfusions.     

Red blood cell transfusion practice in elective orthopedic surgery: a multicenter cohort study

BACKGROUND: The indications for red blood cell (RBC) transfusions remain unclear despite published guidelines. Our hypothesis was that the transfusion practice varies inside the Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal (CHUM). STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: A total of 701 charts of patients who underwent a knee or hip arthroplasty or prosthesis revision in three hospitals of the CHUM were reviewed. Demography, hemoglobin (Hb) concentrations, details on transfusions, and postoperative adverse events (AEs) were collected up until discharge. The primary outcome was the presence or absence of RBC transfusion. Secondary outcomes were the nadir Hb, number of units transfused, discharge Hb, blood losses, and postoperative AEs. RESULTS: The rate of postoperative transfusion was 29%. We found no significant difference between odds ratios of each site for sex, coronary artery disease, chronic heart failure, type of procedure, American Society of Anesthesiologists physical status, weight, height, body mass index, body surface area, and estimated blood volume. Overall, patients were transfused at a Hb between 75 and 80 g/L. Eighty‐five percent of postoperative transfusions could be predicted using only nadir Hb and adding patient characteristics did not substantially improve the model (86.1%). Discharge Hb was below 100 g/L in 66% of patients. CONCLUSIONS: There was no difference among hospitals regarding the way RBC transfusions are used. Our data suggest that physicians mainly based their decision to transfuse on a single variable, the Hb concentration, with the use of a restrictive strategy. Future trials should focus on the optimal transfusion trigger to adopt in major orthopedic surgery.     

早产儿贫血临床输血指征的探讨

目的 观察不同输血指征对早产儿贫血及其他合并症治疗的意义,以期探讨适合我国的较为合理的输血指征.方法 回顾性分析96例出生体重＜1500 g,住院时间≥2周,并接受过输血治疗的早产儿临床资料.按不同的输血指征将其分为两组,即观察1组(输血指征严格)和观察2组(输血指征宽松),其中观察1组54例,观察2组42例.观察患儿输血总量和输血次数.结果 观察1组接受的总输血量比观察2组明显增高[中位值(P25,P75)为71.0(43.25,107.25) ml对 36.0(29.50,56.25)ml,P=0.001],且输血次数较观察2组增多[3.00(2.00,4.00)次对 1.50(1.00,2.25)次,P<0.01].观察1组机械通气时间及持续正压通气时间高于观察2组,但吸氧时间差异无统计学意义.观察1组患儿在颅内出血、真菌感染率及病死率上均高于观察2组(P<0.05).结论 早产儿贫血易促使其并发症的发生,对早产儿存活的影响较大,结合具体病情适当放宽输血指征,科学合理用血,对早产儿的生存有积极意义.     

Patients' recall and perceptions regarding consent to blood transfusion at Universitas Academic Hospital,Bloemfontein, South Africa

We studied the recall and perceptions of transfused patients at a single centre. Fifty-three patients were included. In 11 (20.8%) cases, no written informed consent document could be traced. Four patients who had informed consent documents in their records had no recollection of the consent process. Approximately 11% of patients stated that the consent process was performed using unfamiliar terms. When compared to Caucasian and mixed race respondents, more African respondents (83%) would have preferred the presence of a family member (p < 0.01). Although not all the patients experienced the informed consent positively, it did not impact on their perception of the blood transfusion itself.