Relationship of participation in specific sports to academic performance in adolescents: A 2-year longitudinal study

Physical activity is considered a promising behavior to improve cognitive function and academic performance in adolescents. As evidence on the relationship of specific sports activity is not conclusive, this study aimed to determine the longitudinal relationships of different sports to academic performance in adolescents and evaluate the cardiorespiratory fitness mediation effect of these sports. We focused on the demands of complex motor skills and the differences between individual sports vs team sports. Four hundred and sixty-three 7th-grade students (227 girls and 236 boys) were followed up over 2 years. Data regarding participation in sports activities, types of sports activities, academic performance, and cardiorespiratory fitness were obtained at baseline and after a 2-year follow-up. Structural equation modeling revealed that participation in all sports activity was positively associated with improvement of academic performance from baseline to follow-up, and that these associations were mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness gains. Participation in sports activities that require more complex motor skills and individual sports activity was directly associated with an improvement of academic performance from baseline to follow-up. Furthermore, quitting sports activities was negatively associated with academic performance via a reversal in cardiorespiratory fitness gains. These findings indicate that participation in specific sports may have significant benefits for academic performance in adolescents. Although these relationships are presumably mediated by cardiorespiratory fitness, sports activities that require more complex motor skills and individual sports participation may be directly related to academic performance. Considering that quitting sports activities reversed these benefits, sustained participation in sports is important for academic success.     

The effects of physical activity and exercise on brain‐derived neurotrophic factor in healthy humans: A review

The purpose of this study was to summarize the effects of physical activity and exercise on peripheral brain‐derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in healthy humans. Experimental and observational studies were identified from PubMed, Web of Knowledge, Scopus, and SPORT Discus. A total of 32 articles met the inclusion criteria. Evidence from experimental studies suggested that peripheral BDNF concentrations were elevated by acute and chronic aerobic exercise. The majority of the studies suggested that strength training had no influence on peripheral BDNF. The results from most observational studies suggested an inverse relationship between the peripheral BDNF level and habitual physical activity or cardiorespiratory fitness. More research is needed to confirm the findings from the observational studies.     

Associations between physical activity,body composition,and physical fitness in the transition from preschool to school

The purpose of the study was to assess the longitudinal associations of physical activity (PA) with body composition and physical fitness (PF) at the 12-month follow-up during the transition from kindergarten to school in Estonian children aged 6 to 8 years (n = 147). PA and sedentary behavior (SB) were assessed using the accelerometer. Body composition was measured from triceps and subscapular skinfold thicknesses and PF using PREFIT test battery. SB at the mean age of 6.6 year had negative relation with upper and lower body strength and motor fitness at the mean age of 7.6 year in adjusted models. Light PA (LPA) and moderate PA(MPA) at 6.6 year were positively and SB was negatively associated with fat-free mass index (FFMI) at 7.6 year after adjustments for confounders [vigorous PA (VPA), total awake wear time, child's sex, age at measurement]. Substituting 5 min/d of SB at 6.6 year with 5 min of VPA was related to higher FFMI at 7.6 year. In adjusted models, VPA at 6.6 year was positively associated with cardiorespiratory fitness at 7.6 year, greater baseline VPA or moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) predicted greater upper body strength a year later and LPA, MPA, VPA, MVPA at 6.6 year were positively related to lower body strength at follow-up. In adjusted analysis greater VPA at 6.6 year was related to better motor fitness at follow-up. Promoting higher-intensity PA and reducing SB at preschool may have long-term effects on body composition and PF in children at the first grade.     

Prediction of physical fitness and physical activity level in adulthood by physical performance and physical activity in adolescence - An 18-year follow-up study

Barnekow-Bergkvist M, Hedberg G, Janlert U, Jansson E. Prediction of physical fitness and physical activity level in adulthood by physical performance and physical activity in adolescence - An 18-year follow-up study. The aim of the study was to investigate relationships between physical fitness and self-reported physical activity in adulthood and to what extent the level of physical fitness and leisure-time physical activity in adulthood can be explained by anthropometric measures, physical performance, physical activity, attitudes to sports activities and socio-demographic characteristics at the age of 16. A group of 157 men and 121 women was tested at the ages of 16 and 34 by means of questionnaires and fitness tests. Physically active men and women had higher estimated VO_{2 max} and performed better in curl ups and bench press than those who were inactive. Performance in physical tests, height, weight and physical activity at the age of 16 contributed best to explain adult physical performance and physical activity. The magnitude of explanation varied between 10% (9-min run test) and 56% (bench press test); it was in general lower in the men than in the women. The various fitness tests and physical activity were explained by different predictors and the predictors also differed between men and women. The findings about attitudes to sports and socio-demographic factors at a young age that influence adult physical activity habits and fitness are very complex and further research is required to identify specific inactivity risks.     

Effects of a physical education program on physical activity,fitness, and health in children: The JuvenTUM project

The purpose of the study was to investigate the effects of a school‐based prevention program on physical activity, fitness, and obesity. We performed a prospective study in eight Bavarian primary schools (n = 724 children, 8.4 ± 0.7 years) randomized one to one to either an intervention school (IS, n = 427) or a control school (CS, n = 297). Children in IS attended 10 health‐related lessons at school over a period of 1 year. Parents and teachers attended two and three educational health‐related lessons, respectively, and also received 10 newsletters on health issues. Daily physical activity (≥ 60 min/day), physical fitness (six‐item test battery), and anthropometric data were obtained at baseline and after 1 year. Physical activity and physical fitness increased in IS, but it failed to reach significant intervention effects. Nevertheless, a reduction in waist circumference was observed for all children [mean change 1.7 cm; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2–2.3; P < 0.001). This effect was more pronounced in overweight children (> 90th percentile, n = 99, mean change 3.2 cm; 95% CI 1.5–4.8; P < 0.001). This easily administered preventative program involving children, parents, and teachers revealed that a generalized approach increasing physical activity will even be favorable in a subgroup of obese children.     

A Physical Education trial improves adolescents' cognitive performance and academic achievement: the EDUFIT study

To analyze the effects of an intervention focused on increasing the time and intensity of Physical Education (PE), on adolescents' cognitive performance and academic achievement. A 4‐month group‐randomized controlled trial was conducted in 67 adolescents from South‐East Spain, 2007. Three classes were randomly allocated into control group (CG), experimental group 1 (EG1) and experimental group 2 (EG2). CG received usual PE (two sessions/week), EG1 received four PE sessions/week and EG2 received four PE sessions/week of high intensity. Cognitive performance (non‐verbal and verbal ability, abstract reasoning, spatial ability, verbal reasoning and numerical ability) was assessed by the Spanish Overall and Factorial Intelligence Test, and academic achievement by school grades. All the cognitive performance variables, except verbal reasoning, increased more in EG2 than in CG (all P < 0.05). Average school grades (e.g., mathematics) increased more in EG2 than in CG. Overall, EG2 improved more than EG1, without differences between EG1 and CG. Increased PE can benefit cognitive performance and academic achievement. This study contributes to the current knowledge by suggesting that the intensity of PE sessions might play a role in the positive effect of physical activity on cognition and academic success. Future studies involving larger sample sizes should confirm or contrast these preliminary findings.     

Combining GPS with heart rate monitoring to measure physical activity in children: A feasibility study

The recent development of global positioning system (GPS) receivers with integrated heart rate (HR) monitoring has provided a new method for estimating the energy expenditure associated with children's movement. The purpose of this feasibility study was to trial a combination of GPS surveillance and HR monitoring in 39 primary-aged children from New Zealand. Spatial location and HR data were recorded during a school lunch break using an integrated GPS/HR receiver (1 Hz). Children averaged a total distance of 1.10 ± 0.56 km at speeds ranging from 0 to 18.6 km h⁻¹. Activity patterns were characterised by short bursts of moderate to high speeds followed by longer periods of slow speeds. In addition, boys averaged higher speeds than girls (1.77 ± 0.62 km h⁻¹ and 1.36 ± 0.50 km h⁻¹, respectively; p = 0.003). The percentage of time spent at 0 km h⁻¹ (stationary) ranged from 0.1% to 21.3% with a mean of 6.4 ± 4.6%. These data suggest that while children were relatively active during the lunch period, they spent a substantial portion of time engaged in slow or stationary physical activities. Furthermore, associations between HR, average speed, and stationary time demonstrated that children who moved at faster speeds expended more energy than those who moved at slower speeds. We conclude that the combined approach of GPS and HR monitoring is a promising new method for investigating children's play-related energy expenditure. There is also scope to integrate GPS data with geographic information systems to examine where children play and accumulate physical activity.     

High cardiorespiratory fitness is inversely associated with incidence of overweight in adolescence: A longitudinal study

To assess the association of baseline cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) with incidence of overweight over a 4.6‐year period in adolescence. In a cohort of 4878 adolescents, we assessed body mass index in years 2001–2003 and 2007. CRF was assessed at baseline as maximal oxygen consumption (VO_2max, mL/kg/min) using the 20‐m shuttle run test and was examined against incidence of overweight at follow‐up. Estimated VO_2max at baseline was higher in males than in females, P < 0.001, and was lower in overweight and obese than in non‐overweight subjects. The incidence of overweight at follow‐up among non‐overweight participants at baseline was 15.5% [95% confidence interval (CI) 13.7% to 17.3%] in males and 5.6% (95% CI 4.9% to 7.0%) in females, P < 0.001. Adjusted odds ratio for incidence of overweight in participants in the fourth quartile of VO_2max was 0.40 (95%CI 0.26 to 0.61) in males and 0.57 (95% CI 0.33 to 0.99) in females in comparison with participants in the first quartiles of VO_2max. Incidence of overweight was three times more frequent in males than in females. Among non‐overweight at baseline, high fitness levels were inversely associated with incidence of overweight at follow‐up, suggesting that interventions aiming to increase CRF in early childhood might help reverse increasing trends in obesity.     

Physical fitness components in relation to attention capacity in Latin American youth with overweight and obesity

The aim of the study was twofold: (a) to examine the association between health-related physical fitness and attention capacity in Latin American children and adolescents with overweight and obesity and (b) to test whether body composition outcomes are moderators of this association. A cross-sectional design was used to study 201 overweight/obese participants (12.1 ± 2.1 years of age; 34.3% girls) from Chile (Active-Start study) and Colombia (HEPAFIT study). Body composition, muscular fitness, speed-agility, and cardiorespiratory fitness were evaluated using two similar test batteries (ALPHA and FUPRECOL). Attention capacity was measured by the d2 Test. Linear regression and moderation analyses were conducted. Linear regression analysis revealed an association between muscular fitness (β = 0.245, P = .015), speed-agility (β = −0.16, P = .027), cardiorespiratory fitness (β = 0.331, P < .001) and overall fitness score (β = 0.210; P = .004) and attention capacity (all analyses were controlled for age, sex, peak height velocity, maternal education, and study setting). Moderation analysis using the Johnson-Neyman technique revealed that the effect of the relationship between muscular fitness score and speed-agility and attention capacity was stronger as fat mass and fat mass index increased. In conclusion, physical fitness components are associated with higher attention capacity in youth with overweight/obesity, but body composition seems to moderate these relationships. Randomized controlled trials in this population would help to better understand whether improvements in different components of physical fitness lead to better attention capacity, especially in youth with excess adiposity.     

Associations of cardiorespiratory fitness,physical activity,and adiposity with arterial stiffness in children

Associations of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), physical activity (PA), sedentary behavior, and body fat percentage (BF%) with arterial stiffness and dilation capacity were investigated in 160 prepubertal children (83 girls) 6–8 years of age. We assessed CRF (watts/lean mass) by maximal cycle ergometer exercise test, total PA, structured exercise, unstructured PA, commuting to and from school, recess PA and total and screen‐based sedentary behavior by questionnaire, BF% using dual‐energy X‐ray absorptiometry, and arterial stiffness and dilation capacity using pulse contour analysis. Data were adjusted for sex and age. Poorer CRF (standardized regression coefficient β = ?0.297, P < 0.001), lower unstructured PA (β = ?0.162, P = 0.042), and higher BF% (β = 0.176, P = 0.044) were related to higher arterial stiffness. When CRF, unstructured PA, and BF% were in the same model, only CRF was associated with arterial stiffness (β = ?0.246, P = 0.006). Poorer CRF was also related to lower arterial dilation capacity (β = 0.316, P < 0.001). Children with low CRF (< median) and high BF% (≥ median; P = 0.002), low CRF and low unstructured PA (< median; P = 0.006) or children with low unstructured PA and high BF% (P = 0.005) had higher arterial stiffness than children in the opposite halves of these variables. Poor CRF was independently associated with increased arterial stiffness and impaired arterial dilation capacity among children.     

Motives for physical activity in older men and women: A twin study using accelerometer-measured physical activity

Motives for physical activity may vary considerably by age, sex, and the level of physical activity. We aimed to examine motives for physical activity in older men and women with different physical activity levels as well as whether genetic and/or environmental factors explain those motives. Finnish twins (mean age 72.9 years, 262 full twin pairs) self-reported their motives for physical activity. Time spent on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity was monitored using a hip-worn accelerometer. Comparisons between the different physical activity groups of older twins (n = 764-791/motive dimension) were analyzed using the Wald test, and effect sizes were calculated as Cohen's d. Quantitative genetic modeling was used to estimate genetic and environmental contributions. For both sexes, the most frequently reported motives for physical activity were physical fitness, health maintenance, and psychological well-being. Conforming to others’ expectations was more important for men than for women (P < .001, Cohen's d = 0.38), while appearance (P = .001 Cohen's d = −0.24) and psychological well-being (P = .02, Cohen's d = −0.17) were highlighted by women. Most of the motive dimensions differed significantly between the physically active and inactive individuals. It was estimated that 5%-42% of the variation in motives was contributed by genetic factors and 58%-95% by environmental factors. The result that environmental factors contribute in a great deal to motives indicates that interventions to motivate physically inactive older individuals to be physically active can be successful. However, personalized interventions are needed because sex and the level of physical activity were found to be associated with older individuals’ motives for physical activity.     

Influence of a 2‐ to 6‐year physical education intervention on scholastic performance: The CHAMPS study‐DK

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of a school‐based intervention with a tripling of physical education (PE ) lessons from two (90 minutes) to six lessons per week (270 minutes) on scholastic performance. This study is part of the CHAMPS study‐DK , a quasi‐experimental study that began in 2008. The intervention group consisted of six schools, and the control group consisted of four matched schools (mean age at baseline=8.4 years, kindergarten class fourth grade). Academic performance was extracted from the national test system from 2010 to 2014 (Math and Danish were measured at third and sixth, and second, fourth and sixth grades, respectively). Participants included 1888 students participating in at least one scholastic performance test. Linear mixed models were applied to test for differences between groups and adjusted for known confounders. No significant differences were observed between groups in the academic performance tests (control group reference); Danish second grade β=−1.34 (95% CI −9.90, 7.22), fourth grade β=0.22 (95% CI −6.12, 6.56), sixth grade β=1.03 (95% CI −5.02, 7.08), and all grades combined β=0.28 (95% CI −5.74, 6.31) and Math third grade β=−2.87 (95% CI −9.65, 3.90), sixth grade β=0.99 (95% CI −7.36, 9.34) and combined β=−1.20 (95% CI −8.10, 5.71). In conclusion, no significant differences were observed between intervention and control schools for scholastic performance. Importantly, there were no negative effects of additional PE on scholastic outcomes, despite more PE and longer school days for intervention children.     

Simplified indices of exercise tolerance in patients with multiple sclerosis and healthy subjects: A case-control study

Among patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), the impairment of exercise tolerance is closely related to disability. Maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) is the gold standard to assess exercise tolerance in healthy subjects (HS). Among patients with MS, the accuracy of VO_2max measurement is often impaired because the patients are unable to reach the maximal exercise intensity due to interdependent factors linked to the disease (such as pathological fatigue, pain, lack of exercise habit, and lack of mobility). This study assesses the accuracy of simplified indices for assessing exercise tolerance, which are more suitable in patients with MS. They are simple in the way they are either measurable during submaximal exercise (oxygen uptake efficiency slopes (OUES), physical working capacity at 75% of maximal heart rate (PWC_75%), oxygen consumption at a respiratory exchange ratio of 1 (VO₂@RER1)) or not based on gas exchange analysis (peak work rate (PWR)-based predictive equation and PWC_75%). All indices were significantly lower in the MS group compared to the HS group (P < .001). OUES appeared highly correlated (r > .70, P < .001) with VO_2peak, in both groups, without difference between groups. PWR-based prediction of VO_2peak showed a standard error of the estimate of 315 mL min⁻¹ in HS and 176 mL min⁻¹ in MS. PWC_75% did not correlate to VO_2peak in neither group. These findings suggest an impairment of exercise tolerance functions in mildly disabled persons with MS, independently from other factors. Submaximal indices involving gas exchange analysis or peakWR-based estimation of VO_2peak are usable to accurately assess exercise tolerance.     

Health‐related physical fitness in children and adolescents with Down syndrome and response to training

Physical fitness is related to health at all ages. Information about physical fitness in the Down syndrome (DS) population, however, is scarce, especially when we consider children and adolescents. A review of the current data available on this topic would be both timely and important as it would serve as a starting point to stimulate new research perspectives. The data we reviewed from the literature showed a general trend toward lower values of physical fitness parameters and worse body composition variables in children and adolescents with DS compared with the population without intellectual disability (ID) or even with the population with ID without DS. Notably, children and adolescents with DS have been described as less active or overprotected; however, these factors may not be the cause of their poor physical fitness. Many of the training programs carried out in children and adolescents with DS did not yield the desired responses, and the reasons are still unknown. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current available literature on health‐related physical fitness in children and adolescents with DS, and the effect of training on these variables. From the literature available, it is clear that more data on this population are necessary.